The Arab Open University Intensive English Language Program 99

ALOTAIBI G.M #500445 TO:MR;YASSER

2006-01-03T10:32:00.000-08:00

Find the subject and verb in the following sentences. Remember that some sentences can have an inverted order.
1. Here is my shoe!
2. The little boy hit the big girl.
3. You seem unhappy today.
4. Down the road hopped the rabbit.
5. Are we going out on Halloween?
6. Have the men come all the way from Europe?
7. The soup tasted good in the cold weather.
8. The passenger should have been stopped at the gate.
9. The mail could have arrived earlier.
10. Don't go into that house!

Answers
1. shoe - subject, is - verb
2. boy - subject, hit - verb
3. you - subject, seem - verb
4. rabbit - subject, hopped - verb
5. we - subject, are going - verb
6. men - subject, have come - verb
7. soup - subject, tasted - verb
8. passenger - subject, should have been stopped - verb
9. mail - subject, could have arrived - verb
10. (you) - subject, do go - verb

AL-otaibi G.M #500445 TO;MR;YASSER

2006-01-03T09:23:00.001-08:00

Christopher Columbus
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Christopher Columbus (conjectural image by Sebastiano del Piombo).
English
Christopher Columbus
Spanish
Cristóbal Colón
Italian
Cristoforo Colombo
Portuguese
Cristóvão Colombo
Greek
Χριστόφορος Κολόμβος
Catalan
Cristòfor Colom
Latin
Christoferens Columbus
French
Christophe Colomb
Polish
Krzysztof Kolumb
Dutch
Christoffel Columbus
Romanian
Cristofor Columb
For information about the film director, see the article on Chris Columbus.
Christopher Columbus (1451 – 20 May 1506) was an explorer and trader who crossed the Atlantic Ocean and reached the Americas on October 12, 1492 under the flag of Castile. History places a great significance on his landing in America in 1492, with the entire period of the history of the Americas before this date usually known as Pre-Columbian, and the anniversary of this event, Columbus Day, celebrated in many countries in the Americas. Although there is evidence of Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact, and it is questionable whether one person can "discover" a place which is inhabited by other people, Columbus is often credited as having discovered America. His voyage marked the beginning of the Spanish and European colonization of the Americas. He was most likely Genoese, although some historians claim he could have been born in other places, from the Crown of Aragón to the Kingdoms of Galicia or Portugal, or in the Greek island of Chios among others.
Contents[hide]
1 Background
2 Early life
3 Columbus' idea
4 Columbus' campaign for funding
5 Voyages
5.1 First voyage
5.2 Second voyage
5.3 Third voyage and arrest
5.4 Fourth and final voyage
6 Later life
7 Columbus' national origin
7.1 Columbus' language
8 Perceptions of Columbus
8.1 Columbus as hero
8.2 Columbus as villain
8.3 Physical appearance
9 See also
10 External links
11 References
//

Background

Left: Columbus' signature before 1492. Right: After his first voyage to the Americas, he styled himself "El Almirante" ("the Admiral").
Columbus believed that the Earth was a relatively small sphere, and argued that a ship could reach India via a westward course. The widespread notion that Columbus encountered opposition based on the idea that the Earth was flat is a literary myth created by Washington Irving. Educated people in Columbus's time agreed that the earth was round; anyone familiar with seafaring certainly knew it, since the roundness of the Earth forms the basis of celestial navigation. The main debate was over whether a ship could circumnavigate the planet without running out of food or getting stuck in windless regions such as the Sargasso Sea.
Columbus was not the first European to reach the continent. Most historians today acknowledge the fact that Leif Ericson had traveled to North America from Iceland in the 11th century and set up a short-lived colony at L'Anse aux Meadows. There are also many theories of expeditions to the Americas by a variety of peoples throughout time; see Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact, one of the most consistent is the exploration (before 1472) of two, led by João Vaz Corte-Real to Terra Verde (today's Newfoundland). Giovanni Caboto (better known as John Cabot) was first to reach the American mainland (which Columbus did not reach until his third voyage). However, there is one thing that sets off Columbus' first voyage from all of these: less than two decades later, the existence of America was known to the general public throughout Europe. This is likely due to the invention of the printing press. Additionally, although Columbus is credited in Western classical education as the "discoverer of America" , the two continents are named after Amerigo Vespucci, who reached what is now the coast of Brazil in 1501 and whose name was first applied to the map by cartographer Martin Waldseemüller.
Columbus landed in the Bahamas and later explored much of the Caribbean, including the isles of Juana (Cuba) and La Española (Hispaniola), as well as the coasts of Central and South America. He never reached the present-day United States where "Columbus Day" (The second monday of October, with 12 October being the anniversary of Columbus' landing in the Bahamas) is celebrated as a holiday.
Unlike the voyage of the Icelanders, Columbus' voyages led to a relatively quick, general and lasting recognition of the existence of the New World by the Old World, the Columbian Exchange of species (both those harmful to humans, such as viruses, bacteria, and parasites, and beneficial to humans, such as tomatoes, potatoes, maize, and horses), and the first large-scale colonization of the Americas by Europeans.
Columbus remains a controversial figure. Some – including many Native Americans – view him as responsible, directly or indirectly, for the deaths of tens, if not hundreds, of millions of indigenous peoples, exploitation of the Americas by Europe, and slavery in the West Indies. Others honor him for the massive boost his explorations gave to Western expansion and culture. Italian Americans hail Columbus as an icon of their heritage.
It has generally been accepted that he was Genovese, although doubts have persistently been voiced regarding this. His name in Italian is Cristoforo Colombo, in Spanish is Cristóbal Colón, in Catalan it is Cristòfor Colom and in Portuguese Cristóvão Colombo. Columbus is a Latinized form of his surname. The Latin roots of his name can be translated "Christ-bearer, Dove". Columbus' signature reads Xpo ferens ("Bearing Christ").
Columbus claimed governorship of the new territories (by prior agreement with the Spanish monarchs) and made several more journeys across the Atlantic. While regarded by some as an excellent navigator, he was seen by many contemporaries as a poor administrator and was stripped of his governorship in 1500.

Early life
There are various versions of Columbus's origins and life before 1476. (See Columbus's National Origin.) The account that has traditionally been supported by most historians is as follows:
Columbus was born between August 26 and October 31 in the year 1451, in the Italian port city of Genoa. His father was Domenico Colombo, a woollens merchant, and his mother was Susanna Fontanarossa, the daughter of a woollens merchant. Christopher had three younger brothers, Bartolomeo, Giovanni Pellegrino, and Giacomo, and a sister, Bianchinetta.

Columbus monument in Genoa
In 1470, the family moved to Savona, where Christopher worked for his father in wool processing. During this period he studied cartography with his brother Bartolomeo. Christopher received almost no formal education; a voracious reader, he was largely self-taught.
In 1474, Columbus joined a ship of the Spinola Financiers, who were Genoese patrons of his father. He spent a year on a ship bound towards Chios (an island in the Aegean Sea) and, after a brief visit home, spent a year in Chios. It is believed that this is where he recruited some of his sailors.
A 1476, commercial expedition gave Columbus his first opportunity to sail into the Atlantic Ocean. The fleet came under attack by French privateers off the Cape of St. Vincent, Portugal. Columbus's ship was burned and he swam six miles to shore.
By 1477, Columbus was living in Lisbon. Portugal had become a center for maritime activity with ships sailing for England, Ireland, Iceland, Madeira, the Azores, and Africa. Columbus's brother Bartolomeo worked as a mapmaker in Lisbon. At times, the brothers worked together as draftsmen and book collectors.
He became a merchant sailor with the Portuguese fleet, and sailed to Iceland via Ireland in 1477. He sailed to Madeira in 1478 to purchase sugar, and along the coasts of West Africa between 1482 and 1485, reaching the Portuguese post of Elmina Castle in the Gulf of Guinea coast.
Columbus married Felipa Perestrello Moniz, a daughter from a noble Portuguese family with some Italian ancestry, in 1479. Felipa's father, Bartolomeu Perestrelo, had partaken in finding the Madeira Islands and owned one of them (Porto Santo Island), but died when Felipa was a baby, leaving his second wife a wealthy widow. As part of his dowry, the mariner received all of Perestello's charts of the winds and currents of the Portuguese possessions of the Atlantic. Columbus and Felipa had a son, Diego Colón in 1480. Felipa died in January of 1485. Columbus later found a lifelong partner in Spain, an orphan named Beatriz Enriquez. She was living with a cousin in the weaving industry of Córdoba. They never married, but Columbus left Beatriz a rich woman and directed Diego to treat her as his own mother. The two had a son, Ferdinand in 1488. Both boys served as pages to Prince Juan, son of Ferdinand and Isabella of Castile, and each later contributed, with fabulous success, to the rehabilitation of their father's reputation.

Columbus' idea
Christian Europe, which had long enjoyed safe passage to India and China — sources of valued goods such as silk and spices — under the hegemony of the Mongol Empire (the Pax Mongolica, or "Mongol peace"), was now, after the fragmentation of the Mongol Empire, under complete economic blockade by Muslim states. In response to Muslim domination on land, Portugal sought an eastward sea route to the Indies, and promoted the establishment of trading posts and later colonies along the African coast. Columbus had a different idea. By the 1480s, he had developed a plan to travel to the Indies (then construed roughly as all of south and east Asia) by instead sailing west across the "Ocean Sea" (the Atlantic Ocean).
It is sometimes claimed that the reason Columbus had difficulty obtaining support for his plan was that Europeans believed that the Earth was flat. This myth can be traced to Washington Irving's 1828 novel, The Life and Voyages of Christopher Columbus. What was at issue was not the shape but the circumference of the earth.
The fact that the Earth is round was evident to most people of Columbus' time, especially to sailors, explorers and navigators. Indeed, Eratosthenes (276-194 BC) had already in ancient Alexandrian times accurately calculated the Earth's circumference. Most scholars accepted Ptolemy's claim that the terrestrial landmass (for Europeans of the time, comprising Eurasia and Africa) occupied 180 degrees of the terrestrial sphere, leaving 180 degrees of water.
Columbus, however, accepted the calculations of Pierre d'Ailly, that the landmass occupied 225 degrees, leaving only 135 degrees of water. Moreover, Columbus believed that one degree represented less distance on the earth's surface than was commonly believed. Finally, he read maps as if the distances were calculated in Roman miles (1524 meters, or 5,000 feet) rather than in nautical miles (1,853.99 meters, or 6,082.66 feet, at the equator). He therefore calculated the circumference of the Earth as at most 30,600 km (19,000 modern statute miles), and the distance from the Canary Islands to Japan at 2,400 nautical miles (some 4,444 km).
The problem facing Columbus was that experts did not agree with his estimate of the distance to the Indies. The true circumference of the earth is some 40,000 km (24,900 statute miles of 5,280 feet each), and the distance from the Canary Islands to Japan is some 10,600 nautical miles (19,600 km). No ship in the fifteenth century could carry enough food or sail fast enough from the Canary Islands to Japan. Most European sailors and navigators concluded, correctly, that sailors undertaking a westward voyage from Europe to Asia would die of starvation or thirst long before reaching their destination.
Those experts were right, but Spain, only recently unified through the marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella, and Christianized through the expulsion of the Muslims and Jews, was desperate for a competitive edge over other European countries, in trade with the East Indies. Columbus promised them that edge.
Columbus was wrong about the circumference of the earth and the distance from the Canary Islands to Japan. But all Europeans were wrong in thinking that the aquatic expanse between Europe and Asia was uninterrupted. Although Columbus died believing he had opened up a direct nautical route to Asia, he in fact established a nautical route between Europe and the Americas. It was this route to the Americas, rather than to Japan, that gave Spain the competitive edge it sought in developing a mercantile empire.

Columbus' campaign for funding

Columbus sits among the flowers and trees of Belgrave Square, London
Columbus first presented his plan to the court of Portugal in 1485. The king's experts believed that the route would be longer than Columbus thought (the actual distance is even longer than the Portuguese believed), and denied Columbus's request. It is probable that he made the same outrageous demands for himself in Portugal that he later made in Spain, where he went next. He tried to get backing from the monarchs of Aragon and Castile, Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile, who, by marrying, had united the largest kingdoms of Spain and were ruling them together.
After seven years of lobbying at the Spanish court, where he was kept on a salary to prevent him from taking his ideas elsewhere, he was finally successful in 1492. Ferdinand and Isabella had just conquered Granada, the last Muslim stronghold on the Iberian peninsula, and they received Columbus in Córdoba (in the monarchs' Alcázar or castle). Isabella finally turned Columbus down on the advice of her "think tank" and he was leaving town in despair when Ferdinand lost his patience. Isabella sent a royal guard to fetch him and Ferdinand later rightfully claimed credit for being "the principal cause why those islands were discovered."
About half of the financing was to come from private Italian investors, which Columbus had already lined up. Financially broke from the Granada campaign, the monarchs left it to the royal treasurer to shift funds among various royal accounts on behalf of the enterprise. Columbus was to be made Admiral of the Ocean Sea and granted an inheritable governorship to the new territories he would reach, as well as a portion of all profits. The terms were absurd, but his own son later wrote that the monarchs really didn't expect him to return.

Voyages

First voyage

First voyage

A replica of the Santa Maria
The year 1492, on the evening of August 3, Columbus left from Palos with three ships, the Santa Maria, Niña and Pinta. The ships were property of Juan de la Cosa and the Pinzón brothers (Martin and Vicente Yáñez), but the monarchs forced the Palos inhabitants to contribute to the expedition. He first sailed to the Canary Islands, fortunately owned by Castile, where he reprovisioned and made repairs, and on September 6 started the five week voyage across the ocean.
A legend is that the crew grew so homesick and fearful that they threatened to sail back to Spain. Although the actual situation is unclear, most likely the sailors' resentments merely amounted to complaints or suggestions.
After 29 days out of sight of land, on 7 October 1492 as recorded in the ship's log, the crew spotted shore birds flying west and changed direction to make their landfall. A comparison of dates and migratory patterns leads to the conclusion that the birds were Eskimo curlews and American golden plover.

Columbus claiming possession of the New World
Land was sighted at 2 AM on October 12 by a sailor aboard Pinta named Rodrigo de Triana. Columbus called the island he reached San Salvador, although the natives called it Guanahani. The Native Americans he encountered, the Taíno or Arawak, were peaceful and friendly. He wrote with such awe of the friendly innocence and beauty of these Indians that he inadvertently created the enduring myth of the Noble Savage. "These people have no religious beliefs, nor are they idolaters. They are very gentle and do not know what evil is; nor do they kill others, nor steal; and they are without weapons.". No blood was shed on this first voyage; he believed conversion to Christianity would be achieved through love, not force.
On this first voyage, Columbus also explored the northeast coast of Cuba (landed on October 28) and the northern coast of Hispaniola, by December 5. He believed the peaks of Cuba were the Himalayas of India, which gives one a sense of just how lost he was and how long it took the peoples of the world to map the Earth. (The vast interior of the North and South American mainlands would of course be largely mapped with the leadership of native guides and interpreters.) Here the Santa Maria ran aground and had to be abandoned. He was received by the native cacique Guacanagari, who gave him permission to leave some of his men behind. Columbus founded the settlement La Navidad and left 39 men.
On January 4, 1493 he set sail for home, not yet understanding the elliptical nature of the trade winds that had brought him west. He wrestled his ship against the wind and ran into one of the worst storms of the century. He had no choice but to land his ship in Portugal, where he was told a fleet of 100 caravels had been lost. (Astoundingly, both the Niña and the Pinta were spared.) Some have speculated that landing in Portugal was intentional.
The relations between Portugal and Castile were poor at the time, and he was held up, but finally released. Word of his finding new lands rapidly spread throughout Europe. He did not reach Spain until March 15, when the story of his journey was in its third printing. He was received as a hero in Spain, and this was his moment in the sun. He displayed several kidnapped natives and what gold he had found to the court, as well as the previously unknown tobacco plant, the pineapple fruit, the turkey and the sailor's first love, the hammock. Naturally, he did not bring any of the coveted Indian spices, such as the exceedingly expensive black pepper, ginger or cloves. In his log he wrote "there is also plenty of ají, which is their pepper, which is more valuable than [black] pepper, and all the people eat nothing else, it being very wholesome" (Turner, 2004, P11). The word ají is still used in South American Spanish for chili peppers.

Second voyage

Second voyage
Columbus left from Cádiz, Spain for his second voyage (1493-1496) on September 24, 1493, with 17 ships carrying supplies and about 1200 men to assist in the subjugation of the Taíno and the colonization of the region. On October 13 the ships left the Canary Islands, following a more southerly course than on the first voyage.
On November 3, 1493, Columbus sighted a rugged island which he named Dominica. On the same day he landed at Marie-Galante (which he named Santa Maria la Galante). After sailing past Les Saintes (Todos los Santos), Columbus arrived at Guadaloupe (Santa Maria de Guadalupe), which he explored from November 4 through November 10. The exact course of his voyage through the Lesser Antilles is debated, but it seems likely that Columbus turned north, sighting and naming several islands including Montserrat (Santa Maria de Monstserrate), Antigua (Santa Maria la Antigua), Redonda (Santa Maria la Redonda), Nevis (Santa María de las Nieve or San Martin), Saint Kitts (San Jorge), Sint Eustatius (Santa Anastasia), Saba (San Cristobal), and Saint Martin or Saint Croix (Santa Cruz). Columbus also sighted the island chain of the Virgin Islands, (which he named Santa Ursula y las Once Mil Virgines), and named the islands of Virgin Gorda, Tortola, and Peter Island (San Pedro).
Columbus continued to the Greater Antilles and landed at Puerto Rico (San Juan Bautista) on November 19, 1493. On November 22, he returned to Hispaniola, where he found his colonists had fallen into dispute with Indians in the interior and had been killed. He established a new settlement at Isabella, on the north coast of Hispaniola where gold had first been found but it was a poor location and the settlement was short-lived. He spent some time exploring the interior of the island for gold and did find some, establishing a small fort in the interior. He left Hispaniola on April 24, 1494 and arrived at Cuba (which he named Juana) on April 30 and Jamaica on May 5. He explored the south coast of Cuba, which he believed to be a peninsula rather than an island, and several nearby islands including the Isle of Youth (La Evangelista) before returning to Hispaniola on August 20.
Before he left on his second voyage he had been directed by Ferdinand and Isabella to maintain friendly, even loving relations with the natives. However, during his second voyage he sent a letter to the monarchs proposing to enslave some of the native peoples, specifically the Caribs, on the grounds of their aggressiveness. Although his petition was refused by the Crown, in February, 1495 Columbus took 1600 Arawak as slaves. 550 slaves were shipped back to Spain; two hundred died en route, probably of disease, and of the remainder half were ill when they arrived. After legal proceedings, the survivors were released and ordered to be shipped back home. Some of the 1600 were kept as slaves for Columbus's men, and Columbus recorded using slaves for sex in his journal. The remaining 400, who Columbus had no use for, were let go and fled into the hills, making, according to Columbus, prospects for their future capture dim. Rounding up the slaves resulted in the first major battle between the Spanish and the Indians in the new world.
The main objective of Columbus's journey had been gold. To further this goal, he imposed a system on the natives in Cicao on Haiti, whereby all those above fourteen years of age had to find a certain quota of gold, which would be signified by a token placed around their necks. Those who failed to reach their quota would have their hands chopped off. Despite such extreme measures, Columbus did not manage to obtain much gold. One of the primary reasons for this was the fact that natives became infected with various diseases carried by the Europeans.
In his letters to the Spanish king and queen, Columbus would repeatedly suggest slavery as a way to profit from the new colonies, but these suggestions were all rejected: the monarchs preferred to view the natives as future members of Christendom.

Third voyage and arrest

Third voyage

The arrow points to the city of Sanlúcar de Barrameda on the delta of the Guadalquivir River, in Andalusia.
On May 30, 1498, Columbus left with six ships from Sanlúcar, Spain for his third trip to the New World. He was accompanied by the young Bartolome de Las Casas, who would later provide partial transcripts of Columbus's logs.
After stopping in the Canary Islands and Cape Verde, Columbus landed on the south coast of the island of Trinidad on July 31. From August 4 through August 12, he explored the Gulf of Paria which separates Trinidad from Venezuela. He explored the mainland of South America, including the Orinoco River. He also sailed to the islands of Chacachcare and Margarita Island and sighted and named Tobago (Bella Forma) and Grenada (Concepcion). Initially, he described the new lands as belonging to a previously unknown new continent, but later he retreated to his position that they belonged to Asia.
Columbus returned to Hispaniola on August 19 to find that many of the Spanish settlers of the new colony were discontent, having been misled by Columbus about the supposedly bountiful riches of the new world. Columbus repeatedly had to deal with rebellious settlers and Indians. He had some of his crew hanged for disobeying him. A number of returned settlers and friars lobbied against Columbus at the Spanish court, accusing him of mismanagement. The king and queen sent the royal administrator Francisco de Bobadilla in 1500, who upon arrival (August 23) detained Columbus and his brothers and had them shipped home. Columbus refused to have his shackles removed on the trip to Spain, during which he wrote a long and pleading letter to the Spanish monarchs.
Although he regained his freedom, he did not regain his prestige and lost his governorship. As an added insult, the Portuguese had won the race to the Indies: Vasco da Gama returned in September 1499 from a trip to India, having sailed east around Africa.

Fourth and final voyage

Fourth voyage
Nevertheless, Columbus made a fourth voyage, nominally in search of the Strait of Malacca to the Indian Ocean. Accompanied by his brother Bartolomeo and his thirteen-year old son Fernando, Columbus left Cádiz, Spain on May 11, 1502. On June 15, they landed at Carbet on the island of Martinique (Martinica). A hurricane was brewing, so Columbus continued on, hoping to find shelter on Hispaniola. Columbus arrived at Santo Domingo on June 29, but was denied port. Instead, the ships anchored at the mouth of the Jaina River.
After a brief stop at Jamaica, Columbus sailed to Central America, arriving at Guanaja (Isla de Pinos) in the Bay Islands off the coast of Honduras on July 30. Here Bartholomew found native merchants and a large canoe, which was described as "long as a galley" and was filled with cargo. On August 14, Columbus landed on the American mainland at Puerto Castilla, near Trujillo, Honduras. Columbus spent two months exploring the coasts of Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica, before arriving in Almirante Bay, Panama on October 16.
In Panama, Columbus learned from the natives of gold and a strait to another ocean. After much exploration, he established a garrison at the mouth of Rio Belen in January 1503. On April 6, one of the ships became stranded in the river. At the same time, the garrison was attacked, and the other ships were damaged. Columbus left for Hispaniola on April 16, but sustained more damage in a storm off the coast of Cuba. Unable to travel any farther, the ships were beached in St. Ann's Bay, Jamaica, on June 25, 1503.
Columbus and his men were stranded on Jamaica for a year. Two Spaniards, with native paddlers, were sent by canoe to get help from Hispaniola. In the meantime Columbus, in a desperate effort to induce the natives to continue provisioning him and his hungry men, successfully intimidated the natives by correctly predicting a lunar eclipse, using the Ephemeris of the German astronomer Regiomontanus. Grudging help finally arrived on June 29, 1504, and Columbus and his men arrived in Sanlúcar, Spain, on November 7.

Later life

Santa Maria statue. House of Columbus in Valladolid
While Columbus had always given the conversion of non-believers as one reason for his explorations, he grew increasingly religious in his later years. He claimed to hear divine voices, lobbied for a new crusade to capture Jerusalem, often wore Franciscan habit, and described his explorations to the "paradise" as part of God's plan which would soon result in the Last Judgement and the end of the world.
In his later years Columbus demanded that the Spanish Crown give him 10% of all profits made in the new lands, pursuant to earlier agreements. Because he had been relieved of his duties as governor, the crown felt not bound by these contracts and his demands were rejected. His family later sued for part of the profits from trade with America, but ultimately lost some fifty years later.
On May 20, 1506, Columbus died in Valladolid, fairly wealthy due to the gold his men had accumulated in Hispaniola. He was still convinced that his journeys had been along the East Coast of Asia. Following his death, the body of Columbus underwent excarnation - the flesh was removed so that only his bones remained. Even after his death, his travels continued: first interred in Valladolid and then at the monastery of La Cartja in Seville, by the will of his son Diego, who had been governor of Hispaniola, the remains were transferred to Santo Domingo in 1542. In 1795 the French took over, and the corpse was removed to Havana. After the war of 1898, Cuba became independent and Columbus's remains were moved back to the cathedral of Seville, where they were placed on an elaborate catafalque. However, a lead box bearing an inscription identifying "Don Christopher Columbus' and containing fragments of bone and a bullet was discovered at Santo Domingo in 1877. To lay to rest claims that the wrong relics were moved to Havana and that Columbus is still buried in the cathedral of Santo Domingo, DNA samples were taken in June 2003 (History Today August 2003).
He was canonized by the antipope Gregory XVII, leader of the breakaway Palmarian Catholic Church.

Columbus' national origin
Serious doubts have been expressed regarding Columbus's national origin. Although in the popular culture he is generally assumed to be Italian (Genoese), his actual background is clouded in mystery. Very little is really known about Columbus before the mid-1470s. It has been suggested that this might have been because he was hiding something—an event in his origin or history that he deliberately kept a secret.
The issue of Columbus's 'nationality' became an issue after the rise of nationalism; the issue was scarcely raised until the time of the quadricentenary celebrations in 1892 (see World's Columbian Exposition), when Columbus's Genoese origins became a point of pride for some Italian Americans. In New York City, rival statues of Columbus were underwritten by the Hispanic and the Italian communities, and honourable positions had to be found for each, at Columbus Circle and in Central Park.
One hypothesis is that Columbus served under the French corsair Guillaume Casenove Coulon and took his surname, but later tried to hide his piracy. Some Basque historians have claimed that he was Basque. Others had said that he was a converso (Spanish Jew converted to Christianity). In Spain, even converted Jews were forced to leave Spain after much persecution; it was suggested that many conversos were still practicing Judaism in secret and their success created much envy.
Another theory is that he was from the island of Corsica, which at the time was part of the Genoese republic. Because the often subversive elements of the island gave its inhabitants a bad reputation, he would have masked his exact heritage. A few others also claim that Columbus was actually Catalan (Colom).

Sanctus, Sanctus, Altissimus, Sanctus, son of Mary & Joseph, Salvador Fernandes Zarco
Documents found in the Alentejo region of Portugal suggest he may have been born there. In accordance with this theory, he named the island of Cuba after the Portuguese town Cuba in Alentejo — the town where he, according to Portuguese historians, had been born under the name of Salvador Fernandes Zarco (SFZ), son of Fernando, Duke of Beja, and Isabel Sciarra — and grandson of Cecília Colonna. The Portuguese-origin thesis has him using Colom as a pseudonym. This is based on interpretation of some facts and documents of his life (as above), but mostly on an analysis of his signature under the Jewish Kabbalah, where he described his family and origin (by Macarenhas Barreto: "Fernandus Ensifer Copiae Pacis Juliae illaqueatus Isabella Sciarra Camara Mea Soboles Cubae.", or "Ferdinand who holds the sword of power of Beja (Pax Julia in Latin), coupled with Isabel Sciarra Camara, are my generation from Cuba"). Since he never signed his name conventionally, the pseudonymus theory is reinforced, his name meaning in Latin "Bearer of Christ" (Christo ferens) "and of the Holy Spirit" (Columbus, dove in Latin), a reference to the Order of Christ which succeeded the Templars in Portugal and initiated the age of exploration.
The corollary of the above is that he was (i) knowingly diverting the Castilian kings from their target – India and (ii) had all the reasons to hide his identity and origin, as Portugal was the biggest rival of Spain (Castille) in its sea ventures. In sum, he was a "secret agent".
It is also speculated that Columbus may have come from the island of Khios (or Chios) in Greece. The main point of this theory is that Columbus never said he was from Genoa but from the Republic of Genoa, and that he kept his journal in Latin and Greek instead of the Italian of Genoa. He also referred to himself as "Columbus de Terra Rubra"(Columbus of the Red Earth), Khios was known for its red soil in the south of the island where grow the mastic trees that the Genoes traded. The island of Khios was under the Genoese rule (1346 - 1566 AD), for the period of his life, and therefore it was part of the Republic of Genoa. There is a village named Pirgi in the island of Khios where to this day many of its inhabitants carry the surname "Colombus."
It has even been suggested that the epitaph on his tomb, translated as "Let me not be confused forever," is a veiled hint left by Columbus that his identity was other than he publicly stated during his life. However, the actual phrase, "Non confundar in aeternam" (in Latin), is perhaps more accurately translated "Let me never be confounded," and is contained in several Psalms.
It is certain that Columbus taught himself to read and write after arriving in Portugal, learned cutting-edge navigational and trading skills from the Portuguese, was commissioned by Castile, received financial backing from Genoese bankers, and was informed, in his own words, by "wise people, ecclesiastics and laymen, Latins and Greeks, Jews and Moors and with many others of other sects." He was, in other words, a man of the Mediterranean.

Columbus' language
Although Genoese documents have been found about a weaver named Colombo, it has also been noted that, in the preserved documents, Columbus wrote almost exclusively in Castilian, and that he used the language, with Portuguese phonetics, even when writing personal notes to himself, to his brother, Italian friends, and to the Bank of Genoa.
There is a small handwritten Genoese gloss in an Italian edition of the History of Plinius that he read in his second voyage to America. However, it displays both Castilian and Portuguese influences. Genoese Italian was not a written language in the 15th century, but one would expect a better transliteration into this dialect from a native speaker. However, many people become "tongue-tied" when using what is to them an intimate childhood language. There is also a note in non-Genoese Italian in his own Book of Prophesies exhibiting, according to historian August Kling, "characteristics of northern Italian humanism in its calligraphy, syntax, and spelling." Columbus took great care and pride in writing this form of Italian.
Phillips and Phillips point out that five hundred years ago, the Latinate languages had not distanced themselves to the degree they have today. Bartolomé de las Casas in his Historia de las Indias explained that Columbus did not know Castilian well and that he was not born in Castile. In his letters he refers to himself frequently, if cryptically, as a "foreigner." Ramón Menéndez Pidal studied the language of Columbus in 1942, suggesting that while still in Genoa, Columbus learned notions of Portugalized Spanish from travelers, who used a sort of commercial Latin or lingua franca (latín ginobisco for Spaniards). He suggests that Columbus learned Spanish in Portugal through its use in Portugal as or "adopted language of culture" from 1450. This same Spanish is used by poets like Fernán Silveira and Joan Manuel. The first testimony of his use of Spanish is from the 1480s. Pidal and many others detect a lot of Portuguese in his Spanish, where he mixes, for example, falar and hablar. But Pidal does not accept the hypothesis of a Galician origin for Columbus by noting that where Portuguese and Galician diverged, Columbus always used the Portuguese form. Pidal doubts that Columbus could ever tell Portuguese and Spanish apart, which is why he did not make the effort to learn them properly.
Latin, on the other hand, was the language of scholarship, and here Columbus excelled. He also kept his journal in Latin, and a "secret" journal in Greek.
According to historian Charles Merrill, analysis of his handwriting indicates that it is typical of someone who was a native Catalan, and Columbus's phonetic mistakes in Castilian are "most likely" those of a Catalan. Also, that he married a Portuguese noblewoman is presented as evidence that his origin was of nobility rather than the Italian merchant class, since it was unheard of during his time for nobility to marry outside their class. This same theory suggests he was the illegitimate son of a prominent Catalan sea-faring family, which had served as mercenaries in a sea battle against Castilian forces. Fighting against Ferdinand and being illegitimate were two excellent reasons for keeping his origins obscure. Furthermore, the disinternment of his brother's body shows him to be a different age, by nearly a decade, than the "Bartolome Colombo" of the Genoese family.
The legal documents that demonstrate the Genoese origin of Cristoforo, his father Domenico, and his brothers Bartolomeo and Giacomo (Diego) are discussed in Chapter II of Samuel Eliot Morison's "Admiral of the Ocean Sea.
On page 14, Morison wrote:
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Perceptions of Columbus
Christopher Columbus has had a cultural significance beyond his actual achievements and actions as an individual; he also became a symbol, a figure of legend. The mythology of Columbus has cast him as an archetype for both good and for evil.
The casting of Columbus as a figure of "good" or of "evil" often depends on people's perspectives as to whether the arrival of Europeans to the New World and the introduction of Christianity or the Catholic faith is seen as positive or negative.
In addition, the nascent countries of the New World, particularly the newly independent USA, seemed to need a historical narrative to give them roots. This narrative was supplied in part by Washington Irving in 1828 with The life and voyages of Christopher Columbus, which may be the true source of much of the modern mythology about the explorer.

Columbus as hero

Columbus' tomb in the cathedral of Seville. It is borne by four statues of kings representing the Kingdoms of Castile, Leon, Aragon, and Navarre.
Traditionally, Columbus is viewed as a man of heroic stature by the European-descended population of the New World. He has often been hailed as a man of heroism and bravery, and also of faith: he sailed westward into mostly unknown waters, and his unique scheme is often viewed as ingenious. He "set an example for us all by showing what monumental feats can be accomplished through perseverance and faith" (George H. W. Bush, June 8, 1989).
Hero worship of Columbus perhaps reached a zenith around 1892, the 400th anniversary of his first arrival in the Americas. Monuments to Columbus (including the Columbian Exposition in Chicago) were erected throughout the United States and Latin America, extolling him as a hero. The Knights of Columbus, a Catholic men's fraternal benefit society, had been chartered ten years earlier by the State of Connecticut. The story that Columbus thought the world was round while his contemporaries believed in a flat earth was often repeated. This tale was used to show that Columbus was enlightened and forward looking. Columbus's apparent defiance of convention in sailing west to get to the far east was hailed as a model of "American"-style can-do inventiveness.
In the United States, the admiration of Columbus was particularly embraced by some members of the Italian American, Hispanic, and Catholic communities. These groups point to Columbus as one of their own to show that Mediterranean Catholics could and did make great contributions to the USA. The modern vilification of Columbus is seen by his supporters and by many scholars as being politically motivated and non-historical.

Columbus as villain
Much criticism focuses on the continuing positive Columbus myths and celebrations (such as Columbus Day) and their effects on American thought towards present-day Native Americans. Official celebrations of the 500th anniversary of Columbus's first voyage in 1992 were muted, and demonstrators protested marking the anniversary at all. It was in this spirit that Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez signed, in October, 2002, a decree changing the name of Venezuela's "Columbus Day" to "The Day of Indigenous Resistance" in honor of the nation's indigenous groups. On October 12, 2004, supporters of Chávez destroyed a 100-year old statue of Columbus in Caracas. They did this because they found Columbus guilty of 'imperialist genocide'. (For more, see Columbus Day.) The genocide and atrocious acts committed by the Spanish against the natives (the Tainos in particular) are well documented in terrifying detail by Bartolomé de Las Casas in his letters and book A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies. See Native American Genocide for more details.
The view of Columbus as a villain received mass exposure in the United States when an episode of the TV show "The Sopranos" included a shot of A People's History of the United States by Howard Zinn and demonstrated a common reaction to critical pedagogy in U.S. classrooms.
Columbus is also viewed as a villain for transporting Native Americans to Europe for sale as slaves. There is no evidence of any previous trans-Atlantic voyages that transported slaves for sale. Thus, he was the first known European to transport slaves eastward across the Atlantic, and so is seen by some as the founder of the Atlantic slave trade in which millions of Africans were transported westward across the Atlantic for sale as slaves in the atrocity of the Middle Passage.

Physical appearance
Nobody has ever found an authentic contemporary portrait of Christopher Columbus. Over the years historians have presented many images that reconstruct his appearance from written descriptions. They depict him variously with long or short hair, heavy or thin, bearded or cleanshaven, stern or at ease. The image at the beginning of this article dates from close to Columbus's time, but historians do not know whether the artist painted it from personal knowledge of his appearance. Despite the uncertainty, textbooks in the United States use this image so uniformly that it has become the face of Columbus in popular culture.

See also
Egg of Columbus
Exploration
Explorers
Genocide
Guanahani (a discussion of candidates for site of first landing)
Knights of Columbus
Indian slavery
List of places named for Christopher Columbus
Paolo dal Pozzo Toscanelli
Spanish colonization of the Americas
World Almanac's Ten Most Influential People of the Second Millennium

Wikimedia Commons has media related to:
Christopher Columbus

External links
A reconstructed portrait of Christopher Columbus, based on historical sources, in a contemporary style.
Works by Christopher Columbus at Project Gutenberg
Find-A-Grave profile for Christopher Columbus

References
Extracts from Columbus' journal
Jack Forbes, Columbus and Other Cannibals, Autonomedia, 1992.
Samuel Eliot Morison, Admiral of the Ocean Sea: A Life of Christopher Columbus, Little, Brown and Company, 1991, trade paperback, 680 pages, ISBN 0316584789 (9 other editions available both in hardback and paperback). A biography sympathetic to Columbus, though not blind to violent acts by Columbus and his crew
Brian Fagan: Clash of the Cultures, AltaMira Press 1997. Presents a less-favorable view.
Felipe Fernández-Armesto: Columbus, Oxford University Press 1991. Scholarly work, careful to support all statements with sources.
Sherburn Cook and Woodrow Borah: Essays in Population History Volume I, University of California Press, 1971
John Noble Wilford and Ashbel Green, The mysterious history of Columbus :an exploration of the man, the myth, the legacy, Knopf, 1991, hardcover: ISBN 0679404767, trade paperback: ISBN 0679738320. John Noble Green(?) is a science editor at the New York Times.
J.M. Cohen: "The Four Voyages of Christopher Columbus: Being His Own Log-Book, Letters and Dispatches With Connecting Narrative Drawn from the Life of the Admiral by His Son Hernando Colon and Others", Penguin Classics, 1992.
Michael H. Hart, The 100, Carol Publishing Group, July 1992, paperback, 576 pages, ISBN 0806513500
James Loewen. "Lies My Teacher Told Me: Everything Your American History Textbook Got Wrong". New Press, 1995.
Crosby, Alfred W. The Columbian Voyages. the Columbian Exchange, and Their Historians. Washington, DC: American Historical Association, 1987. ED 303 417.
A Finger in the Wound : Body Politics in Quincentennial Guatemala, ISBN 0520212843
Turner, Jack. "Spice - The History of a Temptation", Random House, 2004 ISBN 0-375-40721-9.
Keith Pickering's Columbus Navigation Page
The Cuba, Portugal Reference, by Mascarenhas Barreto
Mascarenhas Barreto, "The Portuguese Columbus: Secret Agent of King John II", 1992, ISBN 0312079486
The enigma of Columbus (in Portuguese) and American Edition.[1]
Cabalistic discussion of CC signature
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Columbus"
Categories: 1451 births 1506 deaths Italian explorers Natives of Genoa Roman Catholics Explorers of Central America Age of Discovery

AL-otaibi G.M #500445 TO;MR;YASSER

2006-01-03T09:23:00.000-08:00

Mohammed Al-AbdulQader ID:500868 EL99 MA1 Reading

2005-12-28T10:06:00.000-08:00

Smoking Kills
Every year, more then 400,000 American deaths are attributed to smoking. It’s banned in restaurants, workplaces and other public areas. It’s illegal for cigarettes to be sold to anyone under 18. Yet even with all the loss of customers by death, tobacco companies still manage to make a profit.
How do they do it? There are numerous laws against smoking. In 1998, a law passed that made it illegal to smoke in bars. An internal Philip Morris document states, "[The] financial impact of smoking bans will be tremendous - three to five fewer cigarettes per day per smoker will reduce annual manufacturer profits a billion dollars plus per year." In an effort to keep their customers smoking, the companies trick the public with lies and loopholes. Their goal is to slow the antismoking movement and keep people smoking—to get more profits.
What about the health of non-smokers? Reports from 1993 state second-hand smoke causes lung cancer and respiratory diseases. The same findings have been concluded by a hundred other major studies, and still the tobacco industry says the results are flawed.
A Philip Morris inside report from 1987 discussed how anti-smoking movements and price increases prevented 600,000 teens from taking up smoking. In 1979, a memo noted that “Marlboro dominates in the 17 and younger age category…” and in ’78 “…the base of our business is the high school student…”. Even with these companies’ lies and tricks to get around antismoking laws, they still try to sell their products to children. Who could blame them, considering their product kills more than 2,000 of their American customers a day? They need to replace these consumers quickly, and what easier way to do so than convince impressionable teens that smoking is the ‘cool’ thing to do? Hey, it keeps the profits coming!
Antismoking movements are just beginning to be heard. With a product that kills more Americans than AIDS, alcohol, car accidents, murders, suicides, illegal drugs, and fires combined, no law can be too strict. So, when you see a tobacco ad, are offered a cigarette, or have the choice whether or not to smoke, remember that tobacco companies are greedy money-grubbers. No matter who you are, you’re just another dollar sign in the eyes of Philip Morris.
Smoking Kills is for the nonsmokers of the internet. We know the effects of smoking, and we're smart enough to stay away.

Majid Al-Amri 500866 --Reading

2005-12-28T10:00:00.001-08:00

Driving Too Fast Kills More People Than Any Other Traffic Law Violation

Speed limits are a once again becoming a major topic of discussion and some enforcement methods are at best misunderstood and on occasions a source of public irritation. Road Safe believes that eliminating excessive speed will save lives and has outlined some of the potential solutions, their benefits and the rationale behind enforcement methodologies that will significantly contribute to road safety.
Adrian Walsh, director of Road Safe said: ‘There is a tremendous amount of robust scientific evidence, based on extensive data, that in a given situation, higher speeds mean more accidents, more severe accidents, and more deaths. We are keen that those responsible for influencing public opinion realize the implications of this’
Some recent media coverage has implied that the government should leave innocent speeding motorists alone. There is a pressing need to communicate the strong and established link between speed and crashes and to be clear about what the evidence is for that link. Road Safe has therefore re-issued a briefing document to assist with a better public understanding of the issues this is available at: www.roadsafe.com

Majid Al-Amri 500866

2005-12-28T10:00:00.000-08:00

Abdullah Hamad Alqahtani 402886 Writing

2005-12-27T09:10:00.000-08:00

Abdullah Hamad Monahi Alqahtani
ID : 402886
EL99
MA1

Wraiting

People in Saudi Arabia:

The overwhelming majority of Saudi Arabians are Arabs, descended from the indigenous tribes and still today maintaining tribal affiliation. Along the Arabian Gulf coast, there are some Iranians.
The number of expatriate workers is large with the bulk coming from Egypt, Pakistan, India and the Philippines. The economy is almost totally dependent upon foreign labour, though efforts are beginning to be made to lessen this dependence.

Abdullah Hamad Alqahtani 402886 Reading

2005-12-27T09:01:00.000-08:00

Abdullah Hamad Monahi Alqahtani
ID : 402886
EL99

Reading :

King Abdul Aziz
When King Abdul Aziz and Sixty men headed for Riuadh in June 1901, his sole motive was to restore the purity and primacy of Islam rather than any worldly gain. He was inspired by the history of his ancestors and spared no efforts I his stgruggle to regain his ancestors rule. The story fo his recapute of Riyadh is well-know. It was in fact the point of departure from which he began his campaign. His battles and conquests were many including the recapture of Jeddah and Madinah. He spent 31 years in continuous struggle from the time he left Riyadh until he succeeded in reuniting the Kingdom under the system of Tawheed (monotheism).
The history of modern Saudi Arabia begins in the year 1902 when Abdul Aziz Al-Sa'ud and a band of his followers captured the city of Riyadh, returning it to the control of his family.
Abdul Aziz was born about 1880 and spent the early years of his life with his father in exile in Kuwait. After the capture of Riyadh, he spent the next twelve years consolidating his conquests in the area around Riyadh and the eastern part of the country from where the Turks were expelled.
The Arab tribes had never liked the Turks and they were only too willing to listen to a new ruler whose ambitions were aided considerably by the troubles of the Ottoman Empire.
On the 2nd of September 1933, the lands under the control of Abdul Aziz were renamed the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and in 1936 a treaty was signed with Yemen marking the southern borders of the Kingdom.
The main preoccupations of Abdul Aziz were the consolidation of his power and the restoration of law and order to all parts of his recently created kingdom. To these ends, he developed a system whereby every Sheikh was responsible for his own tribe under the authority of the king who was empowered to intervene to impose law and order. It was clearly understood that internal anarchy within the Kingdom could quickly lead to foreign intervention. And all were agreed that this was unacceptable.

to:Mr Yosuef From Id 500810 Khalid Aljower

2005-12-27T06:14:00.001-08:00

writing
riyadh: in 27 decemper2005
from :khalid aljowair
Id :500810
to :mr yosoef..

dir sir..

it is my placher that i right to you, and to the created of arab open University hedd
by his royal hiignes prense talal bin abdulaziz and ol memper of bord ..
and i want tell abut my felings rgarding firste semstar of my economic colij Of pesnes admnstrashion ..

I so amazing prother of tatchars and student to gether evry body helping each other
like One famli howth not avalopel in another Uneversty I plive ..
even clacc not big. not new. even thows i stell love it ..

I do pelive that is not Only my filings .. I can see it in every body there student, teatcher,
even cleaners .. i herd from my cuoleks that is gone be very soon the unversty will go to
another bilding howth new. wide and very huge and will have sports colup resurant and
big hull .. i hope that is realy very soon ..

senserly yours
u r student
khalid aljowair

to:Mr Yosuef From Id 500810 Khalid Aljower

2005-12-27T05:16:00.004-08:00

reading
islam
discover islam

By Nehal El-Hadi*
June 2, 2005
[It is God who raised the skies without support, as you can see, then assumed His throne, and enthralled the sun and the moon (so that) each runs to a predetermined course. He disposes all affairs, distinctly explaining every sign that you may be certain of the meeting with your Lord] (Ar-Ra`d 13:2)
The last of the Abrahamic religions, following Judaism and Christianity, Islam considers the creation of the universe as ultimate proof of the existence of one Creator who “is that dimension which makes other dimensions possible; He gives meaning and life to everything” (Rahman) According to the teachings of Islam, Allah (God) is the one and only god, the absolute Creator of the universe, its components and its laws. Allah is the beginning and the end of all things, and this is the foundation for Islam’s teachings.
The Qur’an is the word of Allah as passed down to Muslims through the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) and the existence of only one version of the Qur’an (there are no dissimilarities between any two copies) attests to the reverence in which Muslims hold it. For Muslims, the Qur’an, containing the word of Allah, provides irrefutable proof of His existence. Along with the Qur’an, nature provides another source for the proof of Allah’s existence. This intimate relationship between the Qur’an and nature is shown in the phrase ayat, which refers to signs of Allah’s existence in nature and also refers to the verses in the Qur’an.
The Creation
In Islam, the world as man knows it, begins and ends with Allah. Unlike Christianity and Judaism, the creation process is not described in detail, but referred to as a starting point for Allah’s power. The creation story in Islam is described in the Qur’an as the creation of the universe by Allah’s will with a single command: “Be!” Several verses in the Qur’an highlight Allah’s power of creation: [Creator of the heavens and the earth from nothingness, He has only to say when He wills a thing: “Be,” and it is] (Al-Baqarah 2:117) and, [That is how God creates what He wills, when He decrees a thing, He says “Be,” a

Angels in Islam: Creatures of Light
By Prof. Shahul Hameed*
May 12, 2005
Muslims believe that angels are behind the workings of nature.
Belief in the existence of angels is one of the fundamental articles of faith in Islam. Muslims believe that angels were created by God from light. Angels carry out God’s commandments in nature and the universe. What we usually call the “forces of nature” become active because of the presence of angels behind them, working at the command of God.
Angels belong to a level of existence beyond the perceptible world of phenomena, called `alam al-ghayb. As God’s creatures living within the physical world of mundane reality, we humans cannot overstep its confines; nor can we visualize beings that exist outside of it. Muslims believe in the existence of angels because God talks about them through His revelations. Though angels are generally invisible beings, they may appear to the outward eye if required, in forms suitable for the visible world.
The Arabic word for angel is malak (plural mala’ikah), and its root meaning is “messenger.” Muslims believe that the Angel Gabriel or Jibreel was the messenger through whom God revealed the Qur’an to Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him). He appeared to the Prophet as a person who could talk—an appearance which was in keeping with his task. It was the same Angel Jibreel who acted as the Prophet’s guide on the Night of Ascension or Al-Mi`raj. Although God may send His revelation through the Angel Gabriel, it is important to point out that in Islam, angels are not considered intermediaries between God and humans in the sense that humans cannot reach God except through the angels.
The Qur’an also speaks of angels as playing a crucial role in processes like creation, prophecy, spiritual life, death, resurrection, and the workings of natural elements. For instance, there is an angel who brings the thunder, and he, too, serves God and obeys His command. Other angels are in charge of embryos in wombs, or responsible for protecting human beings.
The Qur’an speaks of the charge of the angel of death in these verses:
[The angel of death, who has been charged with you, will gather you; then to your Lord you will be returned.] (As-Sajdah 32:11)
The Qur’an also mentions angels in connection with Heaven and Hell:
[Gardens of Eden which they shall enter ... and the angels shall enter unto them from every gate.] (Ar-Ra`d 13:23)
Also angels record the deeds of humans as long as they are on earth:
[There are over you watchers, noble writers, who know whatever you do.] (Al-Infitar 82:10-12)
[Over every soul there is a watcher.] (At-Tariq 86:4)
Angels are also mentioned in many hadiths. For example, the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) is reported to have said that when people gather together in remembrance of God, “The angels surround them, mercy covers them, peace descends on them, and God remembers them among those who are with Him” (At-Tirmidhi).
Angels are different from human beings in that they do not have a will of their own. They were created for the specific purpose of serving God and carrying out His commands. Some angels are in a state of constant worship of God, prostrating to Him and never raising their heads.
* Prof. Shahul Hameed is a full-time consultant in IslamOnline.net’s Discover Islam zone. He was previously the Head of the Department of English, Farook College, Calicut University, India. He also held the position of president of the Kerala Islamic Mission, Calicut, India. He is the author of three books on Islam published in the Malayalam language. His books are on comparative religion, the status of women in Islam, and science and human values.nd it is] (Aal `Imran 3:47).

Revelation: Proof & Guidance
By IOL Team
14/08/2003
Unlike Judaism and Christianity, Islam sets the belief in all books revealed by Allah (God) through his prophets as an important article of faith. Muslims believe that Allah revealed books to His messengers as proof for mankind and as guidance for them. Allah’s prophets purified and taught mankind wisdom from these books. The Qur’an is the final book, which Allah revealed to the Prophet Muhammad. Allah has guaranteed the Qur’an’s protection from any corruption or distortion.
Among the books that were revealed are the Torah, which was revealed to Musa (Moses); the Gospel, which was revealed to Isa (Jesus); the Psalms, which Allah gave to Dawood (David); the Tablets of Ibrahim (Abraham) and Musa; and, finally, the Qur’an.
The Qur’an is not simply a book that equals the Bible, though there are many common points between the two. One major difference is that the original books of the Bible are not available in the form and language in which they were first written and only translations are extant - whereas no translation of the Qur’an can be called the Qur’an.
Anyone who has done translation knows that some kind of interpretation creeps into every translation, and only a person who knows the original language can be a legitimate interpreter of the source book. So, to interpret the Qur’an truthfully, one should have a good knowledge of the Arabic language.
Another point about the Qur’an is that it is not a book of history, a book of science or a book of law - though it has all these in it. It is first and foremost a book of divine guidance. Also, you need to know that the Qur’an does not contain detailed explanations of the situations that prompted the revelations of its verses.
Mostly the verses are guidelines and general principles. Besides, they offer good news for the good people and warnings for the misguided. They contain a number of narrations that serve to give admonitions, exhortations and warnings to mankind in general. In certain cases, the Qur’an also gives specific instructions.
The Qur’an was revealed in the course of the 23 years of the prophetic career of Muhammad (peace be upon him), in accordance with the requirements of the particular contexts that called for divine guidance in certain issues. For this reason, in order to arrive at the correct understanding of many of its verses, we need to know the circumstances in which these verses were revealed. That is why the foundation of the religion of Islam is not just the Qur’an; but it includes the sayings and the example of the Messenger, as well. This also means that the best interpreter of the Qur’an is Prophet Muhammad, to whom the verses were actually revealed.

Prophethood
By IOL Team
14/08/2003
Similar to other religions such as Judaism and Christianity, prophethood is an important concept in Islam. If the unity of Allah (tawheed) constitutes the ideological foundation of Islam, the concept of man’s khilafah, or vicegerency, provides the operational framework for understanding the Islamic view of the creation of human beings and their purpose.
The story of Adam and Eve is found in most religious and major cultural traditions. The way the Qur’an narrates this event is crucial to the understanding of the Islamic worldview.
The main outline of the Qur’anic narration is as follows: Allah declared His intention to send a khalifah, or vicegerent, to the earth. He created Adam and Eve from the same substance. They were destined to play this role of vicegerency and were endowed with the “knowledge of the things” to do the job well. Then they were put to a test and asked not to approach a certain tree. They fell victim to the evil persuasions of Satan and committed sin. But immediately after sinning, they repented their mistake, sought Allah’s forgiveness and were forgiven.
It is important to point out that it was after they were forgiven and redeemed that they were sent down to the earth to play their role as vicegerents of Allah. They were promised Divine Guidance and were assured that those who followed the Guidance would be successful. Therefore, Adam was the first man to receive this guidance and convey it to this progeny, becoming the first prophet of Allah.
Some important inferences follow from this. Islam does not contribute to any theory of the “fall of Adam” symbolizing the fall of man. Man was created for the purpose of acting as khalifah on the earth and he came to the world to fulfill this mission. It represents the rise of man to a new assignment, and not a fall.
However, the concepts of khalifah and prophethood are not to be confused. The role and status of vicegerency is conferred upon the human being as such, and it is shared by man and woman alike.
Islam subscribes to the view that human nature is pure and good. Man has been created in the best of forms and everyone is born in a state of purity and innocence. Furthermore, humans have been given freedom of choice. They are free to accept or deny the truth. Every person is responsible for his or her own actions, but is not deprived of this freedom, even if it is abused. The dangers of the misuse of freedom continue to confront humans as the challenge of Satan is unceasing. The trial of Adam and Eve reveals, on the one hand, the essential goodness of their nature and on the other, their susceptibility to error.
It is to safeguard human beings against this that Allah has provided Divine Guidance through His prophets and messengers.
There are three features of a prophet that can be recognized from surveying the various messengers throughout history. First, a prophet of Allah is the best in his community morally and intellectually. This is necessary because a prophet’s life serves as a model for his followers. His personality should attract people to accept his message rather than drive them away by his imperfect character. Second, Allah’s prophet is supported by miracles to prove that he is not an impostor. Those miracles are granted by the power and permission of Allah and are usually in the field in which his people excel and are recognized as superiors. Finally, every prophet states clearly that what he receives is from Allah for the well-being of mankind. He also confirms what was revealed before him and what may be revealed after him. So the message is one in essence and for the same purpose. Therefore, it should not deviate from what was revealed before him or what might come after him.
The main content of the prophets’ message was to worship the One Allah as He wishes and to do good deeds in this life. Various details about Allah’s nature and laws would be elaborated upon depending on each individual case of the prophet. Islam emphatically rejects the concept of the “Divinity” of any of the prophets. They are essentially human beings and, although they are protected from sin, they can make minor mistakes.
Although the Qur’an mentions only 25 names of prophets, Allah makes it clear that He has sent many prophets to humanity. There is no tribe or nation or race to which Allah has not sent His Guidance.
The greatest prophets are Nuh (Noah), Ibrahim (Abraham), Musa (Moses), Isa (Jesus), and Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon them all).
An outstanding aspect of the Islamic belief in prophethood is that Muslims believe in and respect all the messengers of Allah with no exceptions. Since all the prophets came from the same One God, for the same purpose - to lead mankind to Allah - belief in them all is essential and logical.
The belief in all the prophets of Allah is an article of faith in Islam. Although Jews reject Jesus Christ and Muhammad, and Christians reject Muhammad, Muslims accept them all as messengers of Allah wh

The Afterlife: The Resurrection
By IOL Team
14/08/2003
Belief in al-akhirah (life after death) is so crucial to the Islamic faith that any doubts about it amount to the denial of Allah (God). Allah’s own word in the Qur’an is the foundation of this faith. Besides, the Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him) explained the centrality of this belief for a person who wishes to lead an Islamic life.
We know that we have no means of knowing life after death as a perceptual experience. But Allah has given us certain levels of consciousness that provide us with insight into realities not perceptible through the senses. The Qur’an speaks to our rational mind when it answers the disbelievers who ask, “Who will give life to the dead bones?” The answer is, of course, the One Who created them.
Allah in the Holy Qur’an appeals to man’s reasoning and addresses his power of reflection and judgment by asking him to reflect on how rain revives the dead earth. This is something that is obvious to us; if so, how can we then deny the truth of the resurrection, when Almighty Allah can just as easily revive the dead bones as He revives the earth?
(It is Allah Who sends forth the Winds, so that they raise up the clouds, and We drive them to a land that is dead, and revive the earth therewith after its death: even so [will be] the Resurrection!) (35: 9).
The Qur’an repeatedly tells us that those who believe and do righteous deeds will be greatly rewarded in the afterlife, while those who disbelieve and do bad deeds will be severely punished.
Belief in life after death gives meaning to our life, for it tells us that this life is only a test and preparation for an eternal life. Furthermore, we know that in the afterlife we will receive justice for all the wrongs we suffer here. It may seem that the sinful and corrupt are often happier or wealthier than the righteous, but that is only for a short time. In the afterlife they will get their due.
Belief in life after death encourages a person to lead a good life on earth, since he knows the fate that awaits him if he ignores the commands and warnings of Allah given in the Qur’an. In fact, belief in the afterlife is the strongest incentive for a person to lead a life of virtue here. The real road to a peaceful society can be paved only if people believe in an afterlifeo brought guidance to mankind.

Qadar: A Measured Destiny
By Noor al-Deen
06/03/2004
The sixth and final article of Islamic belief, as detailed by a famous prophetic Tradition,1 is belief in destiny, its good and evil. The Arabic word for destiny, qadar, implies the measuring out of something or fixing a limit to it. Thus, in a technical sense, destiny is the divine decree in its fixing limits for existent things, or its measuring out the being of things.2 Early Muslims would simply define destiny as knowledge that what hits you was not going to miss you, and that what misses you was not going to hit you.3
In our discussion of qadar it should be noted that a true and full understanding of the subject is reserved for the select few who have sacrificed great amounts of time and energy for the sake of Islam, after which Allah expands their understanding of complex concepts like this that cannot be contained in logical formulas alone. The Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him) is reported to have said, “Whenever Allah desires good for His bondsman, He gives him deep understanding of the religion and He inspires him with righteous guidance” (reported by Tabarani).
There are many degrees and depths in understanding the concept of qadar. Given that different people demand different approaches in explaining unfamiliar concepts, we shall attempt to explain a few dimensions, including both the requisite (wajib) tenets and some of the esoteric.
Sheikh Muhammad al-Jurdani 4 defines belief in destiny as the conviction “that Allah Most High has ordained both good and evil before creating creation, and that all that has been and all that will be only exists through Allah's decree, preordainment, and will.” 5
At the same time, our apparent choice and will in matters is not mere illusion. As such, a person may feel guilty when he performs a wrong or evil action, but he does not feel answerable to others when a medical affliction, for instance, strikes him. Maulana Ashraf Ali Thanwi6 explains, “The existence of man’s authority or option is a self-evident truth, but simultaneously it is also clear that this attribute of his authority is created (makhluq) and every chain of creation reaches back to its Creator. The authority of man will be nonexistent in some matters, thereby proving his ultimate powerlessness and helplessness. Thus, a man is neither completely helpless nor is he completely free in power and authority.”7
“Allah has willed that you act based on choice.”
Allah's knowledge eternally encompasses all things necessary, possible, and impossible. The crux of the purpose of existence is our full and experiential realization that Allah is eternally and absolutely knowing of everything and that His Power is singularly orchestrating every event and thing, for Allah says in the Qur’an:
[Allah is He Who created seven heavens, and of the earth the like of them; the decree continues to descend among them, that you may know that Allah has power over all things and that Allah indeed encompasses all things in (His) knowledge.] (Talaq 65:12)
Because His Knowledge, Will, and Power are absolute and unbounded, Allah knows the results of all events and choices before their occurrence. A human being, however, does not have access to this knowledge, and thus he acts in accordance with a desire from within him. Even though his ultimate choice corresponds with Allah's eternal knowledge, he is still accountable for it.
As some Islamic theologians have explained it, “Allah has willed that you act based on choice.”8 We are held responsible for choosing an act but not for creating the act itself. In other words, Allah creates the act and by our choosing it, we “acquire” it and are thereby held responsible for it. Thus, human actions are created by Allah but performed by us.9
The proofs for this subtle relationship are many. For instance, an insane person, a child, and a sleeping person are not held accountable for their actions according to Sacred Law both in this world and the next. If a man sincerely forgets to pray or fast when it is obligatory upon him, he is not considered sinful. Similarly, the king Nimrod tried to burn the Prophet Ibrahim (Abraham, peace be upon him), as is detailed in a famous Qur’anic account, though Allah willed that the fire not burn His beloved Prophet. Nevertheless, even though he failed to execute his evil designs, Nimrod sinned for choosing to harm Ibrahim and is therefore doomed in the next world.
A famous Islamic maxim states, “The foremost energies cannot pierce the walls of foreordained destinies.” Whether we are removed from worldly causes and effects or are deeply submerged in them, we must always maintain the firm conviction that Allah’s Will, Power, and Preordainment control all affairs. In reality, Allah is the Doer of everything, such that causes in themselves do not carry independent efficacy. To believe that medicine in itself cures disease, for instance, is essentially to posit that a created thing is acting independent of its Creator. In other words, the thing would then be beyond the control of Allah, a belief that is little better than attributing a partner to Him. Yes, Allah ties things together according to a recurrent way, such that He satisfies hunger when a person eats, yet controlling it all is His singular Will and Power.10
“The foremost energies cannot pierce the walls of foreordained destinies.”
We do not stop eating, however, because we believe that the food itself is not satisfying our hunger. For one thing, Allah orders us in the Qur’an to eat and drink of wholesome food. But even with things that are not explicitly mentioned in the Qur’an, we must maintain proper conduct with the reoccurring system of order that Allah has put at our disposal. While Allah may change His recurrent way of tying things together (in the form of miracles) for those who are close to Him, it would be little more than rebellion against Him and His system for a common person to completely disregard the world in front of him.
The Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him) has explained some of the practical implications of this belief in his saying, “If something befalls you, don’t say: If only I would have done such and such, rather say: Allah foreordained this, and whatever He wishes, He does; for verily the phrase ‘if only I would have’ makes way for the work of Satan” (reported by Muslim).
In a similar vein, contemporary psychology has discovered innumerable psychological ailments connected with one’s dwelling on past events and past mistakes or lost opportunities. We must constantly remind ourselves that yesterday has passed and will never come back, and tomorrow is merely a possibility. The only real currency we have to work with is “now.” For this reason, one of Satan’s most effective traps is procrastination. Many people have vowed to return to Allah and reform their ways at some future juncture, but they left this world before they were given the opportunity.
The Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him) asked one of his Companions, “Shall I not guide you to words that are a treasure from the treasures of Paradise?” He said, “Of course, O Messenger of Allah!” The Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him) said, “There is no ability or power except through Allah” (reported by Bukhari and Muslim). The reality of these words is the crux of a full and proper understanding of qadar.
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By Nehal El-Hadi*
June 2, 2005
[It is God who raised the skies without support, as you can see, then assumed His throne, and enthralled the sun and the moon (so that) each runs to a predetermined course. He disposes all affairs, distinctly explaining every sign that you may be certain of the meeting with your Lord] (Ar-Ra`d 13:2)
The last of the Abrahamic religions, following Judaism and Christianity, Islam considers the creation of the universe as ultimate proof of the existence of one Creator who “is that dimension which makes other dimensions possible; He gives meaning and life to everything” (Rahman) According to the teachings of Islam, Allah (God) is the one and only god, the absolute Creator of the universe, its components and its laws. Allah is the beginning and the end of all things, and this is the foundation for Islam’s teachings.
The Qur’an is the word of Allah as passed down to Muslims through the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) and the existence of only one version of the Qur’an (there are no dissimilarities between any two copies) attests to the reverence in which Muslims hold it. For Muslims, the Qur’an, containing the word of Allah, provides irrefutable proof of His existence. Along with the Qur’an, nature provides another source for the proof of Allah’s existence. This intimate relationship between the Qur’an and nature is shown in the phrase ayat, which refers to signs of Allah’s existence in nature and also refers to the verses in the Qur’an.
The Creation
In Islam, the world as man knows it, begins and ends with Allah. Unlike Christianity and Judaism, the creation process is not described in detail, but referred to as a starting point for Allah’s power. The creation story in Islam is described in the Qur’an as the creation of the universe by Allah’s will with a single command: “Be!” Several verses in the Qur’an highlight Allah’s power of creation: [Creator of the heavens and the earth from nothingness, He has only to say when He wills a thing: “Be,” and it is] (Al-Baqarah 2:117) and, [That is how God creates what He wills, when He decrees a thing, He says “Be,” a

Angels in Islam: Creatures of Light
By Prof. Shahul Hameed*
May 12, 2005
Muslims believe that angels are behind the workings of nature.
Belief in the existence of angels is one of the fundamental articles of faith in Islam. Muslims believe that angels were created by God from light. Angels carry out God’s commandments in nature and the universe. What we usually call the “forces of nature” become active because of the presence of angels behind them, working at the command of God.
Angels belong to a level of existence beyond the perceptible world of phenomena, called `alam al-ghayb. As God’s creatures living within the physical world of mundane reality, we humans cannot overstep its confines; nor can we visualize beings that exist outside of it. Muslims believe in the existence of angels because God talks about them through His revelations. Though angels are generally invisible beings, they may appear to the outward eye if required, in forms suitable for the visible world.
The Arabic word for angel is malak (plural mala’ikah), and its root meaning is “messenger.” Muslims believe that the Angel Gabriel or Jibreel was the messenger through whom God revealed the Qur’an to Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him). He appeared to the Prophet as a person who could talk—an appearance which was in keeping with his task. It was the same Angel Jibreel who acted as the Prophet’s guide on the Night of Ascension or Al-Mi`raj. Although God may send His revelation through the Angel Gabriel, it is important to point out that in Islam, angels are not considered intermediaries between God and humans in the sense that humans cannot reach God except through the angels.
The Qur’an also speaks of angels as playing a crucial role in processes like creation, prophecy, spiritual life, death, resurrection, and the workings of natural elements. For instance, there is an angel who brings the thunder, and he, too, serves God and obeys His command. Other angels are in charge of embryos in wombs, or responsible for protecting human beings.
The Qur’an speaks of the charge of the angel of death in these verses:
[The angel of death, who has been charged with you, will gather you; then to your Lord you will be returned.] (As-Sajdah 32:11)
The Qur’an also mentions angels in connection with Heaven and Hell:
[Gardens of Eden which they shall enter ... and the angels shall enter unto them from every gate.] (Ar-Ra`d 13:23)
Also angels record the deeds of humans as long as they are on earth:
[There are over you watchers, noble writers, who know whatever you do.] (Al-Infitar 82:10-12)
[Over every soul there is a watcher.] (At-Tariq 86:4)
Angels are also mentioned in many hadiths. For example, the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) is reported to have said that when people gather together in remembrance of God, “The angels surround them, mercy covers them, peace descends on them, and God remembers them among those who are with Him” (At-Tirmidhi).
Angels are different from human beings in that they do not have a will of their own. They were created for the specific purpose of serving God and carrying out His commands. Some angels are in a state of constant worship of God, prostrating to Him and never raising their heads.
* Prof. Shahul Hameed is a full-time consultant in IslamOnline.net’s Discover Islam zone. He was previously the Head of the Department of English, Farook College, Calicut University, India. He also held the position of president of the Kerala Islamic Mission, Calicut, India. He is the author of three books on Islam published in the Malayalam language. His books are on comparative religion, the status of women in Islam, and science and human values.nd it is] (Aal `Imran 3:47).
Revelation: Proof & Guidance
By IOL Team
14/08/2003
Unlike Judaism and Christianity, Islam sets the belief in all books revealed by Allah (God) through his prophets as an important article of faith. Muslims believe that Allah revealed books to His messengers as proof for mankind and as guidance for them. Allah’s prophets purified and taught mankind wisdom from these books. The Qur’an is the final book, which Allah revealed to the Prophet Muhammad. Allah has guaranteed the Qur’an’s protection from any corruption or distortion.
Among the books that were revealed are the Torah, which was revealed to Musa (Moses); the Gospel, which was revealed to Isa (Jesus); the Psalms, which Allah gave to Dawood (David); the Tablets of Ibrahim (Abraham) and Musa; and, finally, the Qur’an.
The Qur’an is not simply a book that equals the Bible, though there are many common points between the two. One major difference is that the original books of the Bible are not available in the form and language in which they were first written and only translations are extant - whereas no translation of the Qur’an can be called the Qur’an.
Anyone who has done translation knows that some kind of interpretation creeps into every translation, and only a person who knows the original language can be a legitimate interpreter of the source book. So, to interpret the Qur’an truthfully, one should have a good knowledge of the Arabic language.
Another point about the Qur’an is that it is not a book of history, a book of science or a book of law - though it has all these in it. It is first and foremost a book of divine guidance. Also, you need to know that the Qur’an does not contain detailed explanations of the situations that prompted the revelations of its verses.
Mostly the verses are guidelines and general principles. Besides, they offer good news for the good people and warnings for the misguided. They contain a number of narrations that serve to give admonitions, exhortations and warnings to mankind in general. In certain cases, the Qur’an also gives specific instructions.
The Qur’an was revealed in the course of the 23 years of the prophetic career of Muhammad (peace be upon him), in accordance with the requirements of the particular contexts that called for divine guidance in certain issues. For this reason, in order to arrive at the correct understanding of many of its verses, we need to know the circumstances in which these verses were revealed. That is why the foundation of the religion of Islam is not just the Qur’an; but it includes the sayings and the example of the Messenger, as well. This also means that the best interpreter of the Qur’an is Prophet Muhammad, to whom the verses were actually revealed.

Prophethood
By IOL Team
14/08/2003
Similar to other religions such as Judaism and Christianity, prophethood is an important concept in Islam. If the unity of Allah (tawheed) constitutes the ideological foundation of Islam, the concept of man’s khilafah, or vicegerency, provides the operational framework for understanding the Islamic view of the creation of human beings and their purpose.
The story of Adam and Eve is found in most religious and major cultural traditions. The way the Qur’an narrates this event is crucial to the understanding of the Islamic worldview.
The main outline of the Qur’anic narration is as follows: Allah declared His intention to send a khalifah, or vicegerent, to the earth. He created Adam and Eve from the same substance. They were destined to play this role of vicegerency and were endowed with the “knowledge of the things” to do the job well. Then they were put to a test and asked not to approach a certain tree. They fell victim to the evil persuasions of Satan and committed sin. But immediately after sinning, they repented their mistake, sought Allah’s forgiveness and were forgiven.
It is important to point out that it was after they were forgiven and redeemed that they were sent down to the earth to play their role as vicegerents of Allah. They were promised Divine Guidance and were assured that those who followed the Guidance would be successful. Therefore, Adam was the first man to receive this guidance and convey it to this progeny, becoming the first prophet of Allah.
Some important inferences follow from this. Islam does not contribute to any theory of the “fall of Adam” symbolizing the fall of man. Man was created for the purpose of acting as khalifah on the earth and he came to the world to fulfill this mission. It represents the rise of man to a new assignment, and not a fall.
However, the concepts of khalifah and prophethood are not to be confused. The role and status of vicegerency is conferred upon the human being as such, and it is shared by man and woman alike.
Islam subscribes to the view that human nature is pure and good. Man has been created in the best of forms and everyone is born in a state of purity and innocence. Furthermore, humans have been given freedom of choice. They are free to accept or deny the truth. Every person is responsible for his or her own actions, but is not deprived of this freedom, even if it is abused. The dangers of the misuse of freedom continue to confront humans as the challenge of Satan is unceasing. The trial of Adam and Eve reveals, on the one hand, the essential goodness of their nature and on the other, their susceptibility to error.
It is to safeguard human beings against this that Allah has provided Divine Guidance through His prophets and messengers.
There are three features of a prophet that can be recognized from surveying the various messengers throughout history. First, a prophet of Allah is the best in his community morally and intellectually. This is necessary because a prophet’s life serves as a model for his followers. His personality should attract people to accept his message rather than drive them away by his imperfect character. Second, Allah’s prophet is supported by miracles to prove that he is not an impostor. Those miracles are granted by the power and permission of Allah and are usually in the field in which his people excel and are recognized as superiors. Finally, every prophet states clearly that what he receives is from Allah for the well-being of mankind. He also confirms what was revealed before him and what may be revealed after him. So the message is one in essence and for the same purpose. Therefore, it should not deviate from what was revealed before him or what might come after him.
The main content of the prophets’ message was to worship the One Allah as He wishes and to do good deeds in this life. Various details about Allah’s nature and laws would be elaborated upon depending on each individual case of the prophet. Islam emphatically rejects the concept of the “Divinity” of any of the prophets. They are essentially human beings and, although they are protected from sin, they can make minor mistakes.
Although the Qur’an mentions only 25 names of prophets, Allah makes it clear that He has sent many prophets to humanity. There is no tribe or nation or race to which Allah has not sent His Guidance.
The greatest prophets are Nuh (Noah), Ibrahim (Abraham), Musa (Moses), Isa (Jesus), and Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon them all).
An outstanding aspect of the Islamic belief in prophethood is that Muslims believe in and respect all the messengers of Allah with no exceptions. Since all the prophets came from the same One God, for the same purpose - to lead mankind to Allah - belief in them all is essential and logical.
The belief in all the prophets of Allah is an article of faith in Islam. Although Jews reject Jesus Christ and Muhammad, and Christians reject Muhammad, Muslims accept them all as messengers of Allah wh
The Afterlife: The Resurrection
By IOL Team
14/08/2003
Belief in al-akhirah (life after death) is so crucial to the Islamic faith that any doubts about it amount to the denial of Allah (God). Allah’s own word in the Qur’an is the foundation of this faith. Besides, the Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him) explained the centrality of this belief for a person who wishes to lead an Islamic life.
We know that we have no means of knowing life after death as a perceptual experience. But Allah has given us certain levels of consciousness that provide us with insight into realities not perceptible through the senses. The Qur’an speaks to our rational mind when it answers the disbelievers who ask, “Who will give life to the dead bones?” The answer is, of course, the One Who created them.
Allah in the Holy Qur’an appeals to man’s reasoning and addresses his power of reflection and judgment by asking him to reflect on how rain revives the dead earth. This is something that is obvious to us; if so, how can we then deny the truth of the resurrection, when Almighty Allah can just as easily revive the dead bones as He revives the earth?
(It is Allah Who sends forth the Winds, so that they raise up the clouds, and We drive them to a land that is dead, and revive the earth therewith after its death: even so [will be] the Resurrection!) (35: 9).
The Qur’an repeatedly tells us that those who believe and do righteous deeds will be greatly rewarded in the afterlife, while those who disbelieve and do bad deeds will be severely punished.
Belief in life after death gives meaning to our life, for it tells us that this life is only a test and preparation for an eternal life. Furthermore, we know that in the afterlife we will receive justice for all the wrongs we suffer here. It may seem that the sinful and corrupt are often happier or wealthier than the righteous, but that is only for a short time. In the afterlife they will get their due.
Belief in life after death encourages a person to lead a good life on earth, since he knows the fate that awaits him if he ignores the commands and warnings of Allah given in the Qur’an. In fact, belief in the afterlife is the strongest incentive for a person to lead a life of virtue here. The real road to a peaceful society can be paved only if people believe in an afterlifeo brought guidance to mankind.

Qadar: A Measured Destiny
By Noor al-Deen
06/03/2004
The sixth and final article of Islamic belief, as detailed by a famous prophetic Tradition,1 is belief in destiny, its good and evil. The Arabic word for destiny, qadar, implies the measuring out of something or fixing a limit to it. Thus, in a technical sense, destiny is the divine decree in its fixing limits for existent things, or its measuring out the being of things.2 Early Muslims would simply define destiny as knowledge that what hits you was not going to miss you, and that what misses you was not going to hit you.3
In our discussion of qadar it should be noted that a true and full understanding of the subject is reserved for the select few who have sacrificed great amounts of time and energy for the sake of Islam, after which Allah expands their understanding of complex concepts like this that cannot be contained in logical formulas alone. The Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him) is reported to have said, “Whenever Allah desires good for His bondsman, He gives him deep understanding of the religion and He inspires him with righteous guidance” (reported by Tabarani).
There are many degrees and depths in understanding the concept of qadar. Given that different people demand different approaches in explaining unfamiliar concepts, we shall attempt to explain a few dimensions, including both the requisite (wajib) tenets and some of the esoteric.
Sheikh Muhammad al-Jurdani 4 defines belief in destiny as the conviction “that Allah Most High has ordained both good and evil before creating creation, and that all that has been and all that will be only exists through Allah's decree, preordainment, and will.” 5
At the same time, our apparent choice and will in matters is not mere illusion. As such, a person may feel guilty when he performs a wrong or evil action, but he does not feel answerable to others when a medical affliction, for instance, strikes him. Maulana Ashraf Ali Thanwi6 explains, “The existence of man’s authority or option is a self-evident truth, but simultaneously it is also clear that this attribute of his authority is created (makhluq) and every chain of creation reaches back to its Creator. The authority of man will be nonexistent in some matters, thereby proving his ultimate powerlessness and helplessness. Thus, a man is neither completely helpless nor is he completely free in power and authority.”7
“Allah has willed that you act based on choice.”
Allah's knowledge eternally encompasses all things necessary, possible, and impossible. The crux of the purpose of existence is our full and experiential realization that Allah is eternally and absolutely knowing of everything and that His Power is singularly orchestrating every event and thing, for Allah says in the Qur’an:
[Allah is He Who created seven heavens, and of the earth the like of them; the decree continues to descend among them, that you may know that Allah has power over all things and that Allah indeed encompasses all things in (His) knowledge.] (Talaq 65:12)
Because His Knowledge, Will, and Power are absolute and unbounded, Allah knows the results of all events and choices before their occurrence. A human being, however, does not have access to this knowledge, and thus he acts in accordance with a desire from within him. Even though his ultimate choice corresponds with Allah's eternal knowledge, he is still accountable for it.
As some Islamic theologians have explained it, “Allah has willed that you act based on choice.”8 We are held responsible for choosing an act but not for creating the act itself. In other words, Allah creates the act and by our choosing it, we “acquire” it and are thereby held responsible for it. Thus, human actions are created by Allah but performed by us.9
The proofs for this subtle relationship are many. For instance, an insane person, a child, and a sleeping person are not held accountable for their actions according to Sacred Law both in this world and the next. If a man sincerely forgets to pray or fast when it is obligatory upon him, he is not considered sinful. Similarly, the king Nimrod tried to burn the Prophet Ibrahim (Abraham, peace be upon him), as is detailed in a famous Qur’anic account, though Allah willed that the fire not burn His beloved Prophet. Nevertheless, even though he failed to execute his evil designs, Nimrod sinned for choosing to harm Ibrahim and is therefore doomed in the next world.
A famous Islamic maxim states, “The foremost energies cannot pierce the walls of foreordained destinies.” Whether we are removed from worldly causes and effects or are deeply submerged in them, we must always maintain the firm conviction that Allah’s Will, Power, and Preordainment control all affairs. In reality, Allah is the Doer of everything, such that causes in themselves do not carry independent efficacy. To believe that medicine in itself cures disease, for instance, is essentially to posit that a created thing is acting independent of its Creator. In other words, the thing would then be beyond the control of Allah, a belief that is little better than attributing a partner to Him. Yes, Allah ties things together according to a recurrent way, such that He satisfies hunger when a person eats, yet controlling it all is His singular Will and Power.10
“The foremost energies cannot pierce the walls of foreordained destinies.”
We do not stop eating, however, because we believe that the food itself is not satisfying our hunger. For one thing, Allah orders us in the Qur’an to eat and drink of wholesome food. But even with things that are not explicitly mentioned in the Qur’an, we must maintain proper conduct with the reoccurring system of order that Allah has put at our disposal. While Allah may change His recurrent way of tying things together (in the form of miracles) for those who are close to Him, it would be little more than rebellion against Him and His system for a common person to completely disregard the world in front of him.
The Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him) has explained some of the practical implications of this belief in his saying, “If something befalls you, don’t say: If only I would have done such and such, rather say: Allah foreordained this, and whatever He wishes, He does; for verily the phrase ‘if only I would have’ makes way for the work of Satan” (reported by Muslim).
In a similar vein, contemporary psychology has discovered innumerable psychological ailments connected with one’s dwelling on past events and past mistakes or lost opportunities. We must constantly remind ourselves that yesterday has passed and will never come back, and tomorrow is merely a possibility. The only real currency we have to work with is “now.” For this reason, one of Satan’s most effective traps is procrastination. Many people have vowed to return to Allah and reform their ways at some future juncture, but they left this world before they were given the opportunity.
The Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him) asked one of his Companions, “Shall I not guide you to words that are a treasure from the treasures of Paradise?” He said, “Of course, O Messenger of Allah!” The Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him) said, “There is no ability or power except through Allah” (reported by Bukhari and Muslim). The reality of these words is the crux of a full and proper understanding of qadar.
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faisal aziz 500197 reading

2005-12-24T08:17:00.000-08:00

Muhyiddin Ibn 'Arabi
Mystic, philosopher, poet, sage, Muhammad Ibn 'Arabi is one of the world's great spiritual teachers. Known as Muhyiddin (the Revivifier of Religion) and the Shaykh al-Akbar (the Greatest Master), he was born in 1165 AD into the Moorish culture of Andalusian Spain, the center of an extraordinary flourishing and cross-fertilization of Jewish, Christian and Islamic thought, through which the major scientific and philosophical works of antiquity were transmitted to Northern Europe. Ibn 'Arabi's spiritual attainments were evident from an early age, and he was renowned for his great visionary capacity as well as being a superlative teacher. He travelled extensively in the Islamic world and died in Damascus in 1240 AD.
He wrote over 350 works including the Fusûs al-Hikam , an exposition of the inner meaning of the wisdom of the prophets in the Judaic/ Christian/ Islamic line, and the Futûhât al-Makkiyya, a vast encyclopaedia of spiritual knowledge which unites
and distinguishes the three strands of tradition, reason and mystical insight. In his Diwân and Tarjumân al-Ashwâq he also wrote some of the finest poetry in the Arabic language. These extensive writings provide a beautiful exposition of the Unity of Being, the single and indivisible reality which simultaneously transcends and is manifested in all the images of the world. Ibn 'Arabi shows how Man, in perfection, is the complete image of this reality and how those who truly know their essential self, know God.
Firmly rooted in the Quran, his work is universal, accepting that each person has a unique path to the truth, which unites all paths in itself. He has profoundly influenced the development of Islam since his time, as well as significant aspects of the philosophy and literature of the West. His wisdom has much to offer us in the modern world in terms of understanding what it means to be human.

faisal aziz 500197 writting

2005-12-24T08:10:00.000-08:00

Ibn Sina (980-1037) is one of the foremost philosophers of the golden age of Islamic tradition that also includes al-Farabi and Ibn Rushd. He is also known as al-Sheikh al-Rais (Leader among the wise men) a title that was given to him by his students. His philosophical works were one of the main targets of al-Ghazali’s attack on philosophical influences in Islam. In the west he is also known as the "Prince of Physicians" for his famous medical text al-Qanun "Canon". In Latin translations, his works influenced many Christian philosophers, most notably Thomas Aquinas.

BRAZIL Ms:UOSEF

2005-12-23T22:43:00.000-08:00

largest nation. It extends 2,965 mi (4,772 km) north-south, 2,691 mi (4,331 km) east-west, and borders every nation on the continent except Chile and Ecuador. Brazil may be divided into the Brazilian Highlands, or plateau, in the south and the Amazon River Basin in the north. Over a third of Brazil is drained by the Amazon and its more than 200 tributaries. The Amazon is navigable for ocean steamers to Iquitos, Peru, 2,300 mi (3,700 km) upstream. Southern Brazil is drained by the Plata system—the Paraguay, Uruguay, and Paraná Rivers.
Government
Federal republic.
History
Brazil is the only Latin American nation that derives its language and culture from Portugal. The native inhabitants mostly consisted of the nomadic Tupí-Guaraní Indians. Adm. Pedro Alvares Cabral claimed the territory for Portugal in 1500. The early explorers brought back a wood that produced a red dye, pau-brasil, from which the land received its name. Portugal began colonization in 1532 and made the area a royal colony in 1549.
During the Napoleonic Wars, King João VI, fearing the advancing French armies, fled Portugal in 1808 and set up his court in Rio de Janeiro. João was drawn home in 1820 by a revolution, leaving his son as regent. When Portugal tried to reimpose colonial rule, the prince declared Brazil's independence on Sept. 7, 1822, becoming Pedro I, emperor of Brazil. Harassed by his Parliament, Pedro I abdicated in 1831 in favor of his five-year-old son, who became emperor in 1840 (Pedro II). The son was a popular monarch, but discontent built up, and in 1889, following a military revolt, he abdicated. Although a republic was proclaimed, Brazil was ruled by military dictatorships until a revolt permitted a gradual return to stability under civilian presidents.
President Wenceslau Braz cooperated with the Allies and declared war on Germany during World War I. In World War II, Brazil again cooperated with the Allies, welcoming Allied air bases, patrolling the South Atlantic, and joining the invasion of Italy after declaring war on the Axis powers.
After a military coup in 1964, Brazil had a series of military governments. Gen. João Baptista de Oliveira Figueiredo became president in 1979 and pledged a return to democracy in 1985. The election of Tancredo Neves on Jan. 15, 1985, the first civilian president since 1964, brought a nationwide wave of optimism, but when Neves died several months later, Vice President José Sarney became president. Collor de Mello won the election of late 1989, pledging to lower hyperinflation with free-market economics. When Collor faced impeachment by Congress because of a corruption scandal in Dec. 1992 and resigned, Vice President Itamar Franco assumed the presidency.
A former finance minister, Fernando Cardoso, won the presidency in the Oct. 1994 election with 54% of the vote. Cardoso sold off inefficient government-owned monopolies in the telecommunications, electrical power, port, mining, railway, and banking industries.
In Jan. 1999, the Asian economic crisis spread to Brazil. Rather than prop up the currency through financial markets, Brazil opted to let the currency float, which sent the real plummeting—at one time as much as 40%. Cardoso was highly praised by the international community for quickly turning around his country's economic crisis. Despite his efforts, however, the economy continued to slow throughout 2001, and the country also faced an energy crisis. The IMF offered Brazil an additional aid package in Aug. 2001. And in Aug. 2002, to ensure that Brazil would not be dragged down by neighboring Argentina's catastrophic economic problems, the IMF agreed to lend Brazil a phenomenal $30 billion over fifteen months.
In Jan. 2003, Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, a former trade union leader and factory worker widely known by the name Lula, became Brazil's first working-class president. As leader of Brazil's only Socialist party, the Workers' Party, Lula pledged to increase social services and improve the lot of the poor. But he also recognized that a distinctly non-socialist program of fiscal austerity was needed to rescue the economy. The president's first major legislative success was a plan to reform the country's debt-ridden pension system, which operated under an annual $20 billion deficit. Civil servants staged massive strikes opposing this and other reforms. Although public debt and inflation remained a problem in 2004, Brazil's economy showed signs of growth and unemployment was down. Polls in Aug. 2004 demonstrated that the majority of Brazilians supported Lula's tough economic reform efforts.
In 2005, an unfolding bribery scandal weakened Lula's administration and led to the resignation of several high government officials. Lula issued a televised apology in August, and promised “drastic measures” to reform the political system.
See also Encyclopedia: BrazilBrazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE) www.ibge.gov.br/ .

AHMD EL_OUN 500264

reading

2005-12-20T16:30:00.000-08:00

To mr yuosef
from : mohammed ayed al qahtani
no: 500543

Officials Prepare for Smooth Haj

“We have developed the operation plan of Tawafa organizations (licensed Haj service firms) as well as field service groups and allocated lands in Mina for domestic pilgrims,” the Saudi Press Agency quoted him as saying.
He emphasized the government’s efforts to provide the best possible services to the guests of God in order to help them perform their religious duties with ease and comfort.
Al-Farsy said domestic pilgrims would be issued Haj permits through an automatic system when they apply for them via licensed Haj service companies, adding that the permits will be issued in coordination with the passport and civil service departments and the data center.
The ministry has allocated a toll-free number — 800-244-4480 — to educate domestic pilgrims on the need to contract with licensed Haj service firms.
“We have already allocated tents in Mina for pilgrims who have come from abroad last month,” the minister said. Tawafa organizations have been instructed to use small vehicles to assist stranded pilgrims to their respective tents.
The Haj Ministry has instructed the General Authority of Civil Aviation to ensure prompt take-off of Haj return flights in order to end the habit of pilgrims waiting for days at the airport for their return journey.
The ministry has warned Saudis and residents against providing refuge to Umrah pilgrims overstaying their visas or providing them with housing and jobs, saying violators of the law would face punitive measures.
The Ministry of Islamic Affairs, meanwhile, has worked out a plan to increase Haj awareness of pilgrims through the Internet, audio and visual media and mobile phones. It will distribute three million copies of books and audiocassettes explaining Haj rituals.
“We will appoint more than 2,000 Islamic preachers, translators and other employees to Haj duty,” Talal Al-Oqail, adviser to the Islamic affairs minister said, adding that its officials would be given 200 vehicles.
In related news, the Ministry of Health has advised local Haj pilgrims to receive their bacterial meningitis vaccinations 10 days before they proceed on their pilgrimage to Makkah.
“Immunity against the disease will be effective only after 10 days from the time of the injection,” Dr. Khaled Al-Merghalani, communications director and supervisor of the Health Awareness Campaign at the ministry, told Arab News, adding that these doses are valid for two years.
The vaccine is available at the Kingdom’s primary health care centers free-of-charge to pilgrims. The vaccine is also available at private clinics for a modest charge. It is given to adults and children over two years of age. It is not administered on pregnant women.
Explaining the seriousness of the disease, Al-Merghalani pointed out that bacterial meningitis could spread during the Haj season because of high number of pilgrims coming from areas where the disease is endemic. He added that overcrowded conditions favor the transmission of the disease, which is spread through close, direct contact with an infected person leading to exchange of saliva or respiratory and throat secretions. The bacteria are spread in a similar fashion as flu viruses, however they are not as easily contagious. Still, health officials recommend that pilgrims carry with them handkerchiefs or tissues to cover their nose or mouth when they sneeze or cough.
Immigration authorities require meningitis vaccination certificates from expatriates before issuing Haj visas. They also require documented blood types. This documentation is available in the pilgrims’ home countries, but Saudi health officials will also provide the vaccination and documentation at Kingdom’s entry points.
Common symptoms of meningitis in anyone over the age of two years are high fever, headache, and a stiff neck. These symptoms can develop over several hours, or they may take one to two days to appear. Other symptoms may include nausea, vomiting, discomfort when looking into bright lights, confusion and sleepiness. “Persons with these symptoms should get medical attention right away,” said Al-Merghalani.
The Ministry of Health is also keeping an around-the-clock vigil on incoming foreign pilgrims to identify suspected SARS, avian flu and other contagious diseases. The ministry has installed cameras to monitor any suspected diseased cases entering the Kingdom through all ports of entry. Special attention is being paid to the Haj Terminal of the King Abdul Aziz Airport in Jeddah since pilgrims from endemic areas tend to disembark at this entry point.
The ministry has dispatched more than 16 teams in the holy cities to look after the health interests of the pilgrims

2005-12-19T17:39:00.000-08:00

NAME: MAMDOOH SALEH BA-HAMID
ID:500182

READING

New York

There are many interesting buildings and other sights to visit. Start with the empire state building, a 102 story skyscraper, and then visit the Rockefeller center in the heart of Manhattan. There is also impressive cathedral of st . john the divine near Columbia university. and of course, don’t forget the metropolitan museum of art and the museum of modern art with paintings by artists like Picasso and kandinsky.

WRITING

STORY

A man came home from work late, tired and irritated, to find his 5 year old son waiting for him at the door? ""Daddy, May I ask you a question" "Yeah, sure, what is it? " Replied the man. ""Daddy, how much money do you make an hour"? "That's none of your business! What makes you ask such a thing?" the man said angrily. "I just want to know. Please tell me, how much you make an hour?" pleaded the little boy."If you must know, I make R100.00 a hour." "Oh," the little boy replied, head bowed. Looking up, he said, "Daddy, May I borrow R10.00 please. The father was furious."If the only reason you want to know how much money I make is just so you can borrow some to buy a silly toy or some other nonsense, then you march yourself straight to your room and go to bed. Think about why you're being so selfish. I work long, hard hours everyday and don't have time for such childish games." The little boy quietly went to his room and shut the door. The man sat down and started to get even madder about the little boy's questioning. How dare he ask such questions only to get some money. After an hour or so, the man had calmed down, and started to think he may have been a little hard on his son. May be there was something he really needed to buy with that R10.00 and he really didn't ask for money very often. The man went to the door of the little boy's room and opened the door. "Are you asleep son?" he asked. "No daddy, I'm awake," replied the boy. "I've been thinking, maybe I was too hard on you earlier," said the man. "It's been a long day and I took my aggravation out on you. Here's that R10.00 you asked for." The little boy sat straight up, beaming. "Oh, thank you daddy!" he yelled. Then, reaching under his pillow, he pulled out some more crumpled up bills. The man, seeing that the boy already had money, started to get angry again. The little boy slowly counted out his money, then looked up at the man. "Why did you want more money if you already had some?" the father grumbled. "Because I didn't have enough, but now I do," the little boy replied. "Daddy, I have R100.00 now... Can I buy an hour of your time?

2005-12-19T11:10:00.000-08:00

Dear my father
I got an apartment ! it's 1000 SR a month , so I need a roommate . I'm going to share it with my brother – we'll split the rent 50 – 50 . do you remember him ? he's quiet , and I think I'll like living with him .
The apartment has tow living room , a small bedroom . and a tiny kitchen . there's a bathroom too , with a shower .
We went to for furniture store and bought some things . I got tow TV and tow dishes for satellite and these cost it 800 SR

The best way to prepare for exams is to revise regularly . this is much better than leaving revision until the last minute . when the exams get near , make out a timetable . in this timetable , list all the things you need to revise and make a note of which subjects you are going to revise each day .

NAME : MOHAMMED ALQADI
PASS WOLRD : 402234
MR.YASER KHALIFA
CLASS : MA2
TIME : 5-9 ST - TU

Bader Al-Zahrani ID No:500030 (Writing (Hajj))

2005-12-19T03:39:00.000-08:00

Hajj -- the pilgrimage to Makkah

Last is the fifth pillar: Al-Hajj, the pilgrimage to Makkah and its holy places during Dhul Hijjah, the closing month of the Islamic year.
The Hajj differs considerably from Umrah, which is an individual act of pilgrimage to Makkah made by Muslims at any other time of the year. Hajj is the worldwide gathering of the family of Islam in a devout and lengthy act of corporate worship, regardless of social status, wealth, nationality or colour. It is an invitation open to every Muslim, with all rivalries forgotten, and with full safety guaranteed for every pilgrim.
To symbolise the brotherhood of Islam, each pilgrim approaches the holy places dressed exactly alike: an unseamed length of white cloth girded around the waist with a cord and another draped across the left shoulder.
The pilgrim's aim is to reach the Holy Kaaba in Makkah's Grand or Inviolable Mosque, and the nearby landmarks honoured for their association with Ibrahim (Abraham), his wife Haggar, their son Ismail (Ishmael), and the Prophet Mohammed.
The Kaaba is, quite literally, the focus of Islam, as it is the direction every Muslim must face each time he prays. A simple cube-shaped building, 50 feet (15 metres) high, it is revered as the House of God, and was built, on the order of Allah, by Ibrahim and Ismail. One corner holds the famous Black Stone (Al-Hajar al-Aswad), protected by a huge silver frame.
The Kaaba is draped with a black silk covering, the Kiswa, beautifully embroidered with Qur'anic texts in gold and silver. This is replaced every year in a special ceremony which takes place one month before the Hajj.
The central role of the Kaaba in Islamic pilgrimage is ordained in the Qur'an:
"When we prepared for Ibrahim the place of the House we said: 'Worship none beside me. Keep My House clean for those who walk around it and those who stand upright or kneel in worship.' Exhort all men to make the Pilgrimage. They will come to you on foot and on the backs of swift camels from every distant quarter; they will come to avail themselves of many a benefit and to pronounce on the appointed days the name of Allah over the beasts which he has given them. Eat of their flesh yourselves, and feed the poor and unfortunate. Then let the pilgrims prepare themselves, make their vows, and circle the Ancient House. Such is Allah's commandment". (22:22/29-30)
The major rites of Hajj which are performed by Muslims today were established in the days of the Prophet Ibrahim, who built the Kaaba and made Makkah a place of pilgrimage. These rites include Tawaf, the sevenfold circling of the Kaaba, originating from Allah's command that Ibrahim take his wife Haggar and their son Ismail into the desert to entrust them to the protection of Allah. In a desperate search for water, Haggar ran seven times between the hills of Safa and Marwah before beseeching the help of Allah, whereupon the well of Zam Zam burst forth at her feet. Hajj pilgrims have ever since evoked this story in their sevenfold running between Safa and Marwah. This is known as the rite of Saiy ('striving').
The abandoning of Haggar and Ismail was only one of Allah's many ways of testing Ibrahim's faith. Others are remembered by the three rocky pillars at Mina, about 3.7 miles/6km east of Makkah. Each pilgrim collects seven stones on the slopes of Muzdalifah hill, and uses them in a ritual stoning of the three pillars, which are known as 'satans'. The ritual is known as Jamarat and follows the sacrifice of a sheep by every pilgrim who can afford it. The sacrifice takes place in memory of that offered by Ibrahim at Allah's command.
The most important ritual of Hajj takes place at Arafat, 10 miles/16km from the Kaaba in Makkah. This is Wukuf, when the pilgrims spend the best part of a night and a day standing in prayer on the Arafat plain. Here they also meditate and hear sermons, according to the command of the Prophet.
Every year, pilgrims begin to arrive in Saudi Arabia about two months before the beginning of Dhul Hijjah. Most of them arrive in Jeddah, whose seaport has received pilgrims by ship for many centuries from the furthest corners of the Islamic world. More recently, the superb, custom-built Hajj Terminal at King Abdul Aziz International Airport (KAIA) has given an enormous boost to the flow of pilgrim traffic since its opening in 1981.

Bader Al-Zahrani

ID No500030

EL999

Bader Al-Zahrani ID No:500030 (Reading (King Fahad))

2005-12-19T03:35:00.000-08:00

King Fahad and the Gulf War

King Khalid died in June 1982 and was succeeded by Crown Prince Fahad bin Abdul Aziz.
King Fahad was well-versed in the arts of government as he had served as the country's first Minister of Education and as King Khalid had been in poor health for much of his reign, Fahad had ruled in all but name.
King Fahad's reign was marked by continuing development within the country and the infrastructure. On the political front, the open hostility from Iran toward Saudi Arabia led the government to strengthen its ties of defence with the USA, Britain and France.
Within days of Iraq's invasion of Kuwait in late summer 1990, King Fahad allowed US troops into the Kingdom to defend the country. In November 1990, King Fahad announced that plans were being made for the formation of a Consultative Council; there was some feeling that this was done in response to criticism that he had not consulted widely enough before allowing foreign troops into the Kingdom. In any case, in March 1992, the King announced that the Consultative Council would be appointed by year's end and he also made its duties clear.
Like other such creations in the Gulf States, the Council is a purely consultative body with no legislative powers whatever. Its formation, however, simply puts an official stamp on the long-standing system of consultation which has long been a mark of Arab politics and society.

Bader Al-Zahrani

ID No:500030

EL099

2005-12-18T13:27:00.000-08:00

to dr: yousef id: 302758 class: ma2
writing
from : abdulrahman hussain abdulazim lotfy

my name is abdulrahman . iam life in ksa . iam egyption . iam in 19 y old . i hope playing pool and useing computer . i have two brothers and two sisters too . i like make traveles to other country . iam studing at arab open univeresity . i like english subjects becouse its very interisting and not difecalt too . my best friend neam's is ahmed nagy . he like football game .

writing

2005-12-18T09:12:00.001-08:00

TO : HASHIMI
FROM : ABDULMOHSEN ABDULLAH AL-GHOIRI
ID# 402598
CLASS ROOM MA2

Jurrny to makkah

I went to Makkah holy city last year to perform Umrah.
I took my family with my to perform the Umrah.
I saw the Holy mosq (almassjed alharam), it was wanderfull.
The Umrh perform was smooth and easy.
after that, we saw the modren buildings and highways.
I visited my uncle who lived in Makkah.
alsow we visited some of our friends.
and then we came back to our city.

It was very nice jurrny and we enjoyed too much.

writing

2005-12-18T09:12:00.000-08:00

WRITING

2005-12-18T08:59:00.000-08:00

TO : HASHIMI
FROM : ABDULMOHSEN ABDULLAH AL-GHOIRI
ID# 402598
CLASS ROOM MA2

Jurrny to makkah

I went to Makkah holy city last year to perform Umrah.
I took my family with my to perform the Umrah.
I saw the Holy mosq (almassjed alharam), it was

wanderfull.
The Umrh perform was smooth and easy.
after that, we saw the modren buildings and highways.
I visited my uncle who lived in Makkah.
alsow we visited some of our friends.
and then we came back to our city.

It was very nice jurrny and we enjoyed too much.

WRITING

2005-12-18T08:57:00.000-08:00

TO : HASHIMI
FROM : ABDULMOHSEN ABDULLAH AL-GHOIRI
ID# 402598
CLASS ROOM MA2

Jurrny to makkah

I went to Makkah holy city last year to perform Umrah.
I took my family with my to perform the Umrah.
I saw the Holy mosq (almassjed alharam), it was

wanderfull.
The Umrh perform was smooth and easy.
after that, we saw the modren buildings and highways.
I visited my uncle who lived in Makkah.
alsow we visited some of our friends.
and then we came back to our city.

It was very nice jurrny and we enjoyed too much.

WRITING

2005-12-18T08:52:00.000-08:00

TO : HASHIMI
FROM : ABDULMOHSEN ABDULLAH AL-GHOIRI
ID# : 402598
CLASS ROOM : MA2

Jurrny to makkah

I went to Makkah holy city last year to perform Umrah.
I took my family with my to perform the Umrah.
I saw the Holy mosq (almassjed alharam), it was wanderfull.
The Umrh perform was smooth and easy.
after that, we saw the modren buildings and highways.
I visited my uncle who lived in Makkah.
alsow we visited some of our friends.
and then we came back to our city.

It was very nice jurrny and we enjoyed too much.

READING

2005-12-18T08:29:00.000-08:00

to : Mr.Hashimi
form : Abdulmohsen Abdullah Al-Ghoiri
ID# : 402598

class room No. ma2

JEDDAH CITY

http://www.saudicities.com/jgeneral.htm

Welcome to Jeddah's General Information page. Other than

the typical information you will also find a gallery of

photos from new and historic Jeddah, local newspaper

links, and general interest links from all around the web.

Browse the information below or click on a specific

subject:

Area, Population, Religion, Language, History,

Transportation, Climate, Currency, Entry, Holidays,

Working hours, Facts, and Newspapers

Area: In 1947, Jeddah occupied an area of 1 km2, but

following its civic and architectural development, this

area has increased to 560 km2 and its Red Sea paved

coastline stretches 80 km from north to south. see map

Population: In 1947 Jeddah's population was 30,000 people.

Now it is over one and a quarter million.

Religion: Islam is the official religion of Saudi Arabia

and culture revolves almost entirely around it - two of

Islam's holiest sites are in the country, and it is

considered the birthplace of the religion. A monotheistic

religion, Islam's holy book is the Qur'an, and Friday is

its Sabbath day. Every day, five times a day, Muslims are

called to prayer from the minarets of mosques that dot the

country. Islam derives from the same monotheistic roots as

Judaism and Christianity, and Muslims generally regard

Christians and Jews with respect - in Islam, Jesus is

regarded as one of the Prophets of Allah, and Jews and

Christians are considered fellow 'people of the Book'.

Mohammed was the last Prophet, and it was to him that

Allah dictated the Qur'an. The Qur'an is Saudi Arabia's

constitution, and Shari'ah (Islamic law) is the foundation

of its legal system.

Language: Arabic is the main language in the country and

is the language used in all official departments. English

is the second language and can be seen on street signs and

advertisements. Most of the younger and many of the older

generations speak English moderately well so communication

is not a problem.

History: Jeddah has grown from humble origins. It began

about 2,500 years ago as a tiny fishing settlement,

established by the Quada's tribe. In AD647, Caliph Osman

Ibn Affan chose Jeddah as the main port for the city of

Makkah, and it became known as Bilad al Kanasil -- the

City of Consulates. In the 16th century, the Ottomans

built a stone wall around the town, in order to fortify it

against attacks from the Portuguese. Originally, four

gates were set in these walls, Bab Sherif opening towards

the south, Bab Makkah facing east, Bab Madinah in the

north wall and a west gate facing the Red Sea. Jeddah

remained a fortified, walled town for centuries of Ottoman

influence and was not released from Turkish rule until

1915. Further evidence of Turkish influence can be seen in

Jeddah's architecture. The buildings of old Jeddah were

tall and graceful, constructed of coral limestone and

decorated with intricately beautiful wooden facades, known

as rawasheen (singular roshan). These were designed not

only to break up the sun's glare, but also to take

advantage of the cooling sea breezes when the inner

windows were opened. One cannot help but feel that, with

the enclosure of the town within high, fortified walls,

the sea breezes may not have stood much chance of reaching

Jeddah's early inhabitants; hence their penchant for

building their houses tall and for sleeping on the roofs

on hot summer nights. The origin of the city's name poses

an interesting dilemma for etymologists. Juddah

(pronounced Jiddah) in Arabic means seashore, which seems

logical enough, but the school of thought which prefers

Jaddah or grandmother, is given credence by the

traditional location of Eve's tomb within the city. Jeddah

is, in fact, incorrect, but is popularly used by most non

-Saudis living there.

Transportation: Facilities are available in the Kingdom

either by air where daily flights serve all the main

cities or by land through a number of air conditioned

buses. Car rentals are available and are a better option

if traveling by land in or around Jeddah. Inside Jeddah

the easiest most of transportation is the taxi service

that is reasonably priced and highly available.

Climate and Temperature: Jeddah's climate is generally

humid reaching 98% sometimes. Average temperatures are 23o

C in January and 32o C in July. Click her for local

climate including satellite images and weekly forecast

from the weather channel

Currency: The Saudi Arabian currency is the Riyal, which

is divided into 100 halalas. Notes are 1, 5, 10, 50, 100,

and 500. There is a coin system but it is rarely used

except of telephones. One US Dollar is approximately worth

3.75 Saudi Riyals. click here for a currency converter

Entry and Transit: Visas: There is no such thing as a

tourist visa for Saudi Arabia. The only way to enter the

country is with a visitor's, transit or (if you're Muslim)

hajj or umrah visa. To get a visitor's visa you will have

to be sponsored by a Saudi individual or company. Your

other option is a 24 or 48-hour transit visa - to get one

you have to prove that you had no choice other than to

stop-over in Saudi Arabia en route to your final

destination. Health Risks: No particular risks, but you

should consider vaccinations for hepatitisA.

Holidays: Saudi Arabia's only holidays are Islamic though

they do celebrate national days and events. The larger

holiday revolves around Ramadan, a month when everyone

fasts between sunrise and sunset to conform to the fourth

pillar of Islam. During Ramadan life reflects the fast and

it is expected that non-Moslems respect the fast and

refrain from eating, drinking or smoking in public during

the day. Ramadan ends with a huge feast, Eid al-Fitr,

which starts with a large prayer gathering then visits to

relatives and friends. Presents are usually given to

children and close family. The holiday lasts for three

days. In 1998 and '99, Ramadan is in December. Eid al-

Adah, held around March, is the other big feast of the

year, and marks the time when Muslims complete the first

day of the pilgrimage to Mecca. The only non-religious

festival is the Jinadriyah National Festival of folklore

and culture, held every February.

Working Hours: Government agencies and departments work

from 7:30 a.m. to 2:30 p.m. and take Thursday and Friday

as a weekend. Private establishments and companies work

one shift from 8:00 a.m. to 5 p.m. or two shifts from 9

a.m. to 2 p.m. and from 5 p.m. to 8 p.m. with half day

Thursdays and Fridays off. All businesses close for the

five prayers during the day.

Facts: Time: GMT/UTC plus 3 hours click here for the local

time, Electricity: 110V, 50Hz though you will find 220V

outlets, Weights & measures: Metric

Newspapers: Albilad, Arab News, AI-Khozama, AI-Riyad, AI-

Riyaaiyah, Urdu News, AI-Youm, Al Saurq Al Ausat, Saudi

Gazette, Okaz, Al Madinah
==================

http://the-saudi.net/saudi-arabia/jeddah/

The second largest city after Riyadh, it is the main port

of the Kingdom on the Red Sea and main gate through which

most of the pilgrims arrive by air and sea to perform

Umrah, Haj or to visit the two holy mosques. Area

inhabited is more than 1,500 km, and population is more

than one and half million. Jeddah is an industrial and

active commercial center, with modern features, squares

and courtyards. It is an important tourism center, with an

eighty kilometer long beautiful corniche on the Red Sea

coast. Jeddah also comprises the King Abdul Aziz

University, King Abdul Aziz International Airport and

Jeddah Islamic Port. King Fahd Fountain is located inside

the Red Sea, near the coast, is an outstanding feature of

the port of Jeddah particularly during the night when it

sends beautiful colored water up to two hundred and sixty

meters
The name Jeddah meaning the "Ancestor of Women" is

attributable to the tomb in the city which is believed to

belong to Eve. Today, it is not however possible to see

that interesting place since the Saudi Arabian government

had the tomb destroyed for the reason that it would

instigate perversions in the religion. Jeddah which gained

importance during the Ottoman rule, was incorporated into

the Kingdom of Hejaz and later came under the British

control. It joined the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in 1927.

2005-12-18T08:21:00.000-08:00

Dear hashimy

2005-12-18T05:51:00.000-08:00

Dear hashimy
ID: 500765
Name: Abdulkarem AL-mehemed
Writing

My Favorite Football Team
My favorite football team is myth of the era. It contains stars of the world. Real Madrid is the best team for me and audiences. Every body likes the players in this team. The stars playing, enjoying and make enjoyment for the audience. In this team there are stars from Brazil, Spain and England top of the world teams. They are playing with attractive style. When they play, all people want to see them playing. I like that team.

2005-12-18T05:47:00.001-08:00

Mr. hashimy
ID: 500765
From: Abdulkarem AL- mehemed
Reading

The Marriage

The marriage to a person from another country considers a social phenomenon at our Arabic society generally. In my opinion there is no problem for marriage from any country or any religion but in the societies' opinion the marriage from the same country is better than marriage from Arabic country and the marriage from Arabic country are better than marriage from foreign country. The marriage is a holy relation between the couples. Some countries control the marriage in addition to that, it is not allow the marriage from another countries but this is backwardness in my opinion. The marriage is a relation eternity and love. The lovers have to be together with them sad and happy days to continue the lifetime. The marriage comes with contentment, amity and love. In my opinion this subject is insignificant with regard to me because I prefer the girl who love me and I love her then I marriage her in any way or any case by all means and any circumstances.

2005-12-18T05:47:00.000-08:00

MR ALHASHIMI

2005-12-18T03:22:00.000-08:00

TO MR ALHASHIMI
FROM AZIZ SHAFEE ID # 500513
SUBJECT:WRITING

DEAR MR ALHASHIMI
I want to talk with you to day about Solar System.
Our solar system consists of an average star we call the Sun, the planets Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto. It includes: the satellites of the planets; numerous comets, asteroids, and meteoroids; and the interplanetary medium. The Sun is the richest source of electromagnetic energy (mostly in the form of heat and light) in the solar system. The Sun's nearest known stellar neighbor is a red dwarf star called Proxima Centauri, at a distance of 4.3 light years away. The whole solar system, together with the local stars visible on a clear night, orbits the center of our home galaxy, a spiral disk of 200 billion stars we call the Milky Way. The Milky Way has two small galaxies orbiting it nearby, which are visible from the southern hemisphere. They are called the Large Magellanic Cloud and the Small Magellanic Cloud. The nearest large galaxy is the Andromeda Galaxy. It is a spiral galaxy like the Milky Way but is 4 times as massive and is 2 million light years away. Our galaxy, one of billions of galaxies known, is traveling through intergalactic space.
The planets, most of the satellites of the planets and the asteroids revolve around the Sun in the same direction, in nearly circular orbits. When looking down from above the Sun's north pole, the planets orbit in a counter-clockwise direction. The planets orbit the Sun in or near the same plane, called the ecliptic. Pluto is a special case in that its orbit is the most highly inclined (18 degrees) and the most highly elliptical of all the planets. Because of this, for part of its orbit, Pluto is closer to the Sun than is Neptune. The axis of rotation for most of the planets is nearly perpendicular to the ecliptic. The exceptions are Uranus and Pluto, which are tipped on their sides

to mr.hashimy about king abdullah of Jordan

2005-12-18T02:33:00.000-08:00

to:mr.hashimy
from:abdulrhman ul-tamimi
title:king abdullah of Jordan

King Abdullah, the founder of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, will always be held in the pages of history as a unique and monumental figure during the newly emerging era of the contemporary Arab World. Mentor to his grandson, the late King Hussein I of Jordan, Abdullah’s character constituted a blend of the traditionalist and the modern. His public career was predominately forward-looking and modern. This is exemplified by him being one of the first Arab leaders to adopt a system of constitutional monarchy during the early years following the formation of his country, and the need he felt - from his experience - for the participation and representation of his people.
Under the Hashemite banner and his father’s inspiration, Abdullah led the Arab forces of the Great Arab Revolt, with his brothers Ali, Feisal and Zeid against the Ottoman occupational forces. By the end of the First World War, they had liberated Damascus, modern Jordan and most of the Arabian peninsula. Following this conquest, Emirs Abdullah and Feisal assumed the thrones of Transjordan and Iraq respectively. Transjordan was formed on April 21, 1921 when King Abdullah established the first centralized governmental system out of a mostly tribal and nomadic society. Over the next thirty years, he focused on nation-building thus developing the institutional foundations of modern Jordan. With great purpose and vision, he sought autonomy and independence; establishing democratic legitimacy by promulgating Jordan’s first constitution in 1928 and holding elections for its first parliament in 1929. Also during these three decades, the King presided over a series of Anglo-Transjordanian treaties culminating in the March 22, 1946 Anglo-Transjordanian Treaty, ending the British mandate, gaining full independence and changing the name of the country to the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan.
During the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, King Abdullah’s Jordanian Arab Legion was instrumental in the defense of Jerusalem and parts of Palestine. The Jordanian army displayed courage and heroism, and was widely acknowledged for its high level of professionalism, tenacity and bravery against a force superior in number and armament. The Arab Legion successfully routed the fortified Jewish forces from the Old City and secured East Jerusalem despite the subsequent determined but ineffectual Israeli offensives to remove the Jordanian Arab Legion. The war came to an end in mid-July, as a series of armistice agreements were signed between Arab parties and Israel at the Rhodes Conference. Jordan did not participate at Rhodes, but concluded its armistice with Israel directly on the ground.
On July 20, 1951 King Abdullah traveled to Jerusalem for his regular Friday prayers with his young grandson, Hussein. The King was assassinated by a lone gunman on the steps of one of the holiest shrines of Islam, and the jewel of Jerusalem, Al-Aqsa Mosque. Miraculously, the bullet meant for Hussein deflected off a medal he was wearing, thereby saving his life. King Abdullah rests in the Royal Tombs in the Royal Court in Amman.
The murder of King Hussein’s grandfather had a profound influence on his life in terms of understanding the importance and inevitability of death, as well as a sense of the importance of his duty and responsibility in the years to come. In his autobiography, Uneasy Lies the Head, King Hussein recalls how three days before that fateful day in Jerusalem, his grandfather turned to him and said, "I hope you realize, my son, that one day you will have to assume responsibility. I look to you to do your very best to see that my work is not lost. I look to you to continue it in the service of our people." The young Prince promised solemnly that he would, to his best ability, carry out his duty. However, the King and the Prince could not have known how short was the time ahead

To Mr. Hashimy about lebanon

2005-12-18T02:19:00.000-08:00

to mr.hashimy
from:Abdulrahman ul-Tamimi ID #
Title:lebanon

Lebanon has made progress toward rebuilding its political institutions since 1991 and the end of the devastating 15-year civil war. Under the Ta'if Accord - the blueprint for national reconciliation - the Lebanese have established a more equitable political system, particularly by giving Muslims a greater say in the political process while institutionalizing sectarian divisions in the government. Since the end of the war, the Lebanese have conducted several successful elections, most of the militias have been weakened or disbanded, and the Lebanese Armed Forces (LAF) have extended central government authority over about two-thirds of the country. Hizballah, a radical Shia organization, retains its weapons. During Lebanon's civil war, the Arab League legitimized in the Ta'if Accord Syria's troop deployment, numbering about 16,000 based mainly east of Beirut and in the Bekaa Valley. Damascus justified its continued military presence in Lebanon by citing Beirut's requests and the failure of the Lebanese Government to implement all of the constitutional reforms in the Ta'if Accord. Israel's withdrawal from southern Lebanon in May 2000, however, encouraged some Lebanese groups to demand that Syria withdraw its forces as well. The passage of UNSCR 1559 in early October 2004 - a resolution calling for Syria to withdraw from Lebanon and end its interference in Lebanese affairs - further emboldened Lebanese groups opposed to Syria's presence in Lebanon. Syria finally withdrew the remainder of its forces from Lebanon in April of 2005.

Geography
Lebanon

Writing a letter (400298)

2005-12-17T06:02:00.000-08:00

To : Mr……………..
From; Mohammed Masoud Ahmed Sheekh
ID: 400298
Class: MA1 Saturday – Tuesday 05.00 PM – 09.00PM
Subject: "writing skill" - Writing a letter

Dear Sir
AL-AYYAM editor-in-chief

The AL-WASTAH Newspaper has offered me to work with them as Caricaturist which I believe gives me more opportunity for progress. As they are prepared to pay me more than I am earning now, I have accepted their offer, which is however subject to a satisfactory reference. I hope and feel sure you will give this to me. I would like to say at once that I will in many ways be very sorry to leave your Newspaper. I have been most happy during my five years in the AL-AYYAM Newspaper. It seems obvious to me that the training and experience that I have received during my service with Al-AYYAM must have been largely responsible for the success of my application for my new position. AL-WASTAH Newspaper would like me to start working at the beginning of January, so I hope it will be convenient to you if I leave in two weeks. I am most grateful to all concerned

Regards
Caricaturist; Mohammed Masoud
www.al-rassam.com

Sphinx’s fingers (400298)

2005-12-17T05:58:00.000-08:00

To : Mr…………….. From; Mohammed Masoud Ahmed Sheekh
ID: 400298
Class: MA1 Saturday – Tuesday 05.00 PM – 09.00PM

Subject: "Reading skill" - Sphinx’s fingers

Sphinx’s fingers
Sphinx, Hotchepsut, Ramesses, Horus,Totankhamen, Pyramids and The valley of kings are names still dallying my spirit , names those narrate a history crowd of civilization that occurred before thousands of years and many traces of it were left immortal till now Sphinx is now proud looking to the shining sun telling the world about the valley of pharaohs story . Its Egypt the direction of all visitors, attract them from all districts to come with their hearts beating to stand against Sphinx and to know who were the pharaohs, what they left for us to see and to know.
If I am asked to chose a place to visit it will not take me time to think, and that place will be Egypt, my heart is eager to see Aswan and in my mind many questions cant be answered if not visiting Louxsor
In Egypt there is a civilization well known to every cultured person of which many art production companies produced films as (mummy return), (prince of Egypt). Even the companies of games productions took many ideas of games from Egyptian civilization as example (tomb raider) produced by ( IDOS COMPANY ) and that game was so distinct because of the small details being taken from Egyptian civilization , overlooking novels and stories that produced depending on the same field .
In Egypt there is a civilization that call all world to visit and see it and about me I will be so happy to visit it, and no doubt that I will be so proud to have a photo being taken for me while I am standing on one of Sphinx fingers, it’s a dream that I hope to fulfill.

2005-12-16T21:46:00.000-08:00

to dr: yousef
id:500692
writing
from : ahmed mohmed hamed alam

Hi I am Ahmed Allam. I love play football every day with my best friends. His name is Ahmed Nagy, we are going to university together. In last summer we travel to Egypt to visit our girl friends. In there we saw ruins of Egypt and went to the museum. There are many nice things. We stayed there for 20 days, it was nice journey. In fact, we were enjoyed it .after that we came back to here to continue our university studying.

to mr hashemy / from maher

2005-12-16T12:19:00.000-08:00

write
maher alkahlout /id 500661

Customer Need
AMD wanted a new competitive intelligence and information gathering solution. The company wanted to be able to comb the Internet looking for information on specific topics based on named keywords and specific web sites.
Solution
Newsfeeds were set up to track keywords relating to AMD's key PC industry customers, complementors, and competitors.
What Lise Joffrain, strategic marketing analyst, AMD says about online news monitoring
Q: What were you using before NewsNow?
Before NewsNow, we were using two generic intranet newsfeeds, one on semiconductors and one on computers, and we were spending a lot of time surfing industry news sites for additional hot articles.
Q: What made you consider the service?
We went looking for a new competitive intelligence and information gathering solution. We wanted to be able to comb the Internet looking for information on specific topics based on keywords we determined and web sites we selected.
Q: How did you specify what you wanted?
The sales rep at NewsNow gave us a great demonstration of the service by incorporating all of our initial requests into a demo newsfeed and giving us a month to evaluate and tweak the output.
Q: What other considerations where in play?
It was important to us that we could regularly update the keywords being searched and the web sites being indexed so that the newsfeed always returned the most valuable items.
Q: Were there technical considerations?
Technical considerations included a desire to have control over how often the newsfeed email was generated and to whom it was sent through an online interface. And having the ability to change the distribution specifications without any need for intervention from our sales rep.
Q: How easy was the implementation?
The implementation was simple because we had been looking at and tweaking a fully functional demo all along. So, as soon as we made the decision to go with NewsNow, all we had to do was sign the contract because all of the IT work was already done on their end and the system was already in place.
Q: Can you describe who benefits and how?
Our competitive intelligence specialists benefit most directly from the newsfeed because it noticeably decreases the amount of time it takes to catch up on the hottest news each morning; however, many of AMD's microprocessor group receives information from the NewsNow newsfeed by e-mail either once a day, once a week, or once a month.

2005-12-15T22:13:00.000-08:00

Mr. Yasser Khalifah

2005-12-15T14:30:00.000-08:00

From : Sultan AL-qahtani ID: 500273

CLASS : MA2
TIME : 5-9 sat - tus

Dear Fahad I got an apartment . It's 500R a month, so i need a roommate with me . I'm going to sahr it wigh Kaled , he is a good frend .We will spilt the rent 50-50 . The apartment has tow big rooms , tiny kichen , towbed rooms and small bathroom . One of the bigroom is empty, the ather room has some furniture but it's old . Kaled will be bring hes TV and stereo and me i have computer and recever. We went to the secound-hand furinturestore and bought some things . We got tow beds with tow dresser and tabul for 700R . I also got a computer desk andsome personal thigs , it cost 300R . Say hi to Fares and Ali for me . See you soon !! Love Sultan
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Helen Boaden, Director BBC News, today announced that Sue Inglish has been appointed to the new combined role of Head of Political Programmes, Analysis and Research. The role encompasses Sue's current News Board role as Head of Analysis and Research, and the vacant role of Head of Political Programmes resulting from the appointment of Fran Unsworth to Head of Newsgathering . In her new role, Sue will take on additional responsibility for all of the BBC's political programmings. This includes, on television: The Daily Politics, This Week, The Politics Show, Question Time and the BBC's Parliament Channel. On radio, programmes include Today in Parliament and Yesterday in Parliament, The Week in Westminster and TheWestminster Hour. Before joining the BBC, Sue worked extensively for ITN (1983-1997) where she was ultimately Deputy Editor of Channel Four News.

Mr. Yasser Khalifah

2005-12-15T14:21:00.000-08:00

From : Sultan AL-qahtani ID: 500273

CLASS : MA2
TIME : 5-9 sat - tus

Dear Fahad
I got an apartment . It's 500R a month, so i need a roommate with me . I'm going to sahr it wigh Kaled , he is a good frend .We will spilt the rent 50-50 .
The apartment has tow big rooms , tiny kichen , towbed rooms and small bathroom . One of the bigroom is empty, the ather room has some furniture but it's old .
Kaled will be bring hes TV and stereo and me i have computer and recever. We went to the secound-hand furinturestore and bought some things . We got tow beds with tow dresser and tabul for 700R . I also got a computer desk andsome personal thigs , it cost 300R . Say hi to Fares and Ali for me . See you soon !! Love Sultan

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Helen Boaden, Director BBC News, today announced that Sue Inglish has been appointed to the new combined role of Head of Political Programmes, Analysis and Research.
The role encompasses Sue's current News Board role as Head of Analysis and Research, and the vacant role of Head of Political Programmes resulting from the appointment of Fran Unsworth to Head of Newsgathering . In her new role, Sue will take on additional responsibility for all of the BBC's political programmings.
This includes, on television: The Daily Politics, This Week, The Politics Show, Question Time and the BBC's Parliament Channel. On radio, programmes include Today in Parliament and Yesterday in Parliament, The Week in Westminster and TheWestminster Hour. Before joining the BBC, Sue worked extensively for ITN (1983-1997) where she was ultimately Deputy Editor of Channel Four News.

Mr. Yasser Khalifa

2005-12-15T13:57:00.000-08:00

From : Sultan AL-Qhatani ID : 237
Class : MA2
Time : 5-9 sat - tus
Dear Fahad
I got an apartment . It's 500R a month, so i need a roommate with me . I'm going to sahr it wigh Kaled , he is a good frend .We will spilt the rent 50-50 .
The apartment has tow big rooms , tiny kichen , towbed rooms and small bathroom . One of the bigroom is empty, the ather room has some furniture but it's old .
Kaled will be bring hes TV and stereo and me i have computer and recever. We went to the secound-hand furinturestore and bought some things . We got tow beds with tow dresser and tabul for 700R . I also got a computer desk andsome personal thigs , it cost 300R .
Say hi to Fares and Ali for me . See you soon !!
Love
Sultan
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Helen Boaden, Director BBC News, today announced that Sue Inglish has been appointed to the new combined role of Head of Political Programmes, Analysis and Research.

The role encompasses Sue's current News Board role as Head of Analysis and Research, and the vacant role of Head of Political Programmes resulting from the appointment of Fran Unsworth to Head of Newsgathering.

In her new role, Sue will take on additional responsibility for all of the BBC's political programming.

This includes, on television: The Daily Politics, This Week, The Politics Show, Question Time and the BBC's Parliament Channel.

On radio, programmes include Today in Parliament and Yesterday in Parliament, The Week in Westminster and The Westminster Hour.

Before joining the BBC, Sue worked extensively for ITN (1983-1997) where she was ultimately Deputy Editor of Channel Four News.

There, she was responsible for editorial, financial, staff and resource management of ITN's programmes for Channel Four including the nightly Channel Four News, a daily political programme from Westminster, as well as special current affairs programmes and documentaries.

Sue joined BBC News in 2002 from ITN New Media where, as editor, she was responsible for itn.co.uk and the interactive element of its 24 hour news channel.

Prior to that she was editor of LBC (from 1999 to 2000) and from 1997 to 2000 was Head of Programme Strategy for Euronews.

To: Mr. Yoosef - Writing

2005-12-14T20:50:00.000-08:00

From: Ali Eissa Ahmad Sabeei
ID No.: 500167 ( MA-1)
To: Mr. Yoosef
Subject: Writing

At nine O'clock on Friday evening, one lady came to the corner street supermarket with her husband. They took some food. A young boy looked to them. When the lady finished of marketing, she gave the casher the money. After that the young boy ran to the lady and took the bag from her hand and ran away, the lady shouted and her husband followed the boy, and the casher called the police. After that the police man caught the boy and put hem in the jail. The police man turned the bag back to the lady, and she thanked hem.

Imaam Ahmad ibn Hanbal

2005-12-14T13:09:00.000-08:00

Reading

Imaam Ahmad ibn Hanbal

Hassan Ahmad Al-Jumu'ah Magazine Volume 12 - Issue 3 – Rabi’ul Al-Awwal 1421 H

Abu Abdullah, Ahmad ibn Hanbal ash-Shaibani, was born in the city of Baghdad in the year 780 CE (164 AH). He studied various subjects in his hometown and traveled extensively in quest of knowledge. In his great book, ‘Siyar A’lam an-Nubala’, Imam ath-Dhahabi described Ibn Hanbal as, “The true Shaikh of Islam and leader of the Muslims in his time, the hadith master and proof of the religion”. He was chiefly interested in acquiring knowledge of Ahadeeth and traveled extensively through Iraq, Syria, Arabia and other places in the Middle East studying religion and collecting the ahadeeth of Prophet Muhammad, sallallahu 'alayhi wa sallam. His travels occupied several years of his early life. After returning home, he became a student of Imam Shafi’ee who taught him the subject of Islamic Fiqh and its fundamentals. This and the fact that he was a scholar of hadith, were responsible for his deep devotion to the textual views on Islam, and his opposition to innovation of any kind. The strength of his faith in Allah and the steadfastness on his understanding of the Deen were tested when under Khalifah al-Mamum and the Khalifah al-Mu’tasim, a Fitnah or a kind of ‘inquisition court’ was created to deal with people among whom were many acknowledged scholars who would not profess the doctrine of “the creation of the Qur’an”. Imam ibn Hanbal too, suffered as a result when he was arrested and brought in chains before the court. But he patiently submitted to corporal punishment and imprisonment and resolutely refused to deviate from his beliefs. His trial, and the Ummah’s for that matter, were to come to an end on the hands of the Khalifah al-Mutawakkil who did not believe in the doctrine of ‘the creation of the Qur’an’. From then onwards the Imam was accorded honour befitting his greatness. His steadfastness helped preserve the correct Islamic belief regarding the Book of Allah. His fame spread far and wide. His learning, piety and unswerving faithfulness to traditions gathered the Ummah and its scholars around his understanding and teachings. He died in Baghdad in the year 855 CE (241 AH). Among the works of Imam ibn Hanbal is the great encyclopedia of ahadeeth called al-Musnad, compiled during his life time, completed by his son Abdullah, and amplified by supplements. Al-Musnad contains more than thirty thousand ahadeeh. His other works include ”Kitab-us-Salah”, on the discipline of making salah and “Kitab-us-Sunnah”, on matters of aqueedah as they are understood from the hadith of the prophet, sallallahu 'alayhi wa sallam and the sayings and commentaries of the companions of the Prophet, sallallahu 'alayhi wa sallam. Imam ath-Dhahabi related many of the praises stated by the scholars who knew Ibn Hanbal personally. The biography of Ibn Hanbal spread over at least 113 pages of ath-Thahabi’s, “Siyar A’lam an-Nubala”. Abdullah ibn Ahmad, the Imam’s son, said: “I heard Abu Zur’ata Rrazi say: ‘Your father had memorised a million hadith, which I rehearsed with him according to the topic,’” Ali ibnul-Madini, the great Imam of Hadeeth said: “Truly, Allah reinforced this religion with Abu Bakr as-Siddiq the day of the great apostasy (ar-Riddah), and He reinforced it with Ahmad ibn Hanbal the day of the Inquisition (al-Mihnah).” Harmala said: “I heard ash-Shafi’ee say: ‘I left Baghdad and did not leave behind me anyone more virtuous, more learned, more knowledgeable than Ahmad ibn Hanbal.’”
_____________________________________________________
Name : Ali Eissa Ahmad Sabeei .
ID Number : 500167 - ( MA1)

Imaam Ahmad ibn Hanbal

2005-12-14T13:00:00.000-08:00

Reading

Imaam Ahmad ibn Hanbal

Hassan Ahmad Al-Jumu'ah Magazine Volume 12 - Issue 3 – Rabi’ul Al-Awwal 1421 H

Imaam Ahmad Ibn Hanbal

2005-12-14T12:50:00.001-08:00

Reading
Imaam Ahmad ibn Hanbal
Hassan Ahmad
Al-Jumu'ah Magazine Volume 12 - Issue 3 – Rabi’ul Al-Awwal 1421 H

Abu Abdullah, Ahmad ibn Hanbal ash-Shaibani, was born in the city of Baghdad in the year 780 CE (164 AH). He studied various subjects in his hometown and traveled extensively in quest of knowledge.
In his great book, ‘Siyar A’lam an-Nubala’, Imam ath-Dhahabi described Ibn Hanbal as, “The true Shaikh of Islam and leader of the Muslims in his time, the hadith master and proof of the religion”.
He was chiefly interested in acquiring knowledge of Ahadeeth and traveled extensively through Iraq, Syria, Arabia and other places in the Middle East studying religion and collecting the ahadeeth of Prophet Muhammad, sallallahu 'alayhi wa sallam. His travels occupied several years of his early life.
After returning home, he became a student of Imam Shafi’ee who taught him the subject of Islamic Fiqh and its fundamentals. This and the fact that he was a scholar of hadith, were responsible for his deep devotion to the textual views on Islam, and his opposition to innovation of any kind.
The strength of his faith in Allah and the steadfastness on his understanding of the Deen were tested when under Khalifah al-Mamum and the Khalifah al-Mu’tasim, a Fitnah or a kind of ‘inquisition court’ was created to deal with people among whom were many acknowledged scholars who would not profess the doctrine of “the creation of the Qur’an”. Imam ibn Hanbal too, suffered as a result when he was arrested and brought in chains before the court. But he patiently submitted to corporal punishment and imprisonment and resolutely refused to deviate from his beliefs.
His trial, and the Ummah’s for that matter, were to come to an end on the hands of the Khalifah al-Mutawakkil who did not believe in the doctrine of ‘the creation of the Qur’an’. From then onwards the Imam was accorded honour befitting his greatness. His steadfastness helped preserve the correct Islamic belief regarding the Book of Allah. His fame spread far and wide. His learning, piety and unswerving faithfulness to traditions gathered the Ummah and its scholars around his understanding and teachings. He died in Baghdad in the year 855 CE (241 AH).
Among the works of Imam ibn Hanbal is the great encyclopedia of ahadeeth called al-Musnad, compiled during his life time, completed by his son Abdullah, and amplified by supplements. Al-Musnad contains more than thirty thousand ahadeeh. His other works include ”Kitab-us-Salah”, on the discipline of making salah and “Kitab-us-Sunnah”, on matters of aqueedah as they are understood from the hadith of the prophet, sallallahu 'alayhi wa sallam and the sayings and commentaries of the companions of the Prophet, sallallahu 'alayhi wa sallam.
Imam ath-Dhahabi related many of the praises stated by the scholars who knew Ibn Hanbal personally. The biography of Ibn Hanbal spread over at least 113 pages of ath-Thahabi’s, “Siyar A’lam an-Nubala”.
Abdullah ibn Ahmad, the Imam’s son, said: “I heard Abu Zur’ata Rrazi say: ‘Your father had memorised a million hadith, which I rehearsed with him according to the topic,’”
Ali ibnul-Madini, the great Imam of Hadeeth said: “Truly, Allah reinforced this religion with Abu Bakr as-Siddiq the day of the great apostasy (ar-Riddah), and He reinforced it with Ahmad ibn Hanbal the day of the Inquisition (al-Mihnah).”
Harmala said: “I heard ash-Shafi’ee say: ‘I left Baghdad and did not leave behind me anyone more virtuous, more learned, more knowledgeable than Ahmad ibn Hanbal.’”

_____________________________________________________

Name : Ali Eissa Ahmad Sabeei .

ID Number : 500167 - ( MA1)

Reading - Imaam Ahmad Ibn Hanbal

2005-12-14T12:50:00.000-08:00

Imaam Ahmad ibn Hanbal
Hassan Ahmad
Al-Jumu'ah Magazine Volume 12 - Issue 3 – Rabi’ul Al-Awwal 1421 H

Abu Abdullah, Ahmad ibn Hanbal ash-Shaibani, was born in the city of Baghdad in the year 780 CE (164 AH). He studied various subjects in his hometown and traveled extensively in quest of knowledge.
In his great book, ‘Siyar A’lam an-Nubala’, Imam ath-Dhahabi described Ibn Hanbal as, “The true Shaikh of Islam and leader of the Muslims in his time, the hadith master and proof of the religion”.
He was chiefly interested in acquiring knowledge of Ahadeeth and traveled extensively through Iraq, Syria, Arabia and other places in the Middle East studying religion and collecting the ahadeeth of Prophet Muhammad, sallallahu 'alayhi wa sallam. His travels occupied several years of his early life.
After returning home, he became a student of Imam Shafi’ee who taught him the subject of Islamic Fiqh and its fundamentals. This and the fact that he was a scholar of hadith, were responsible for his deep devotion to the textual views on Islam, and his opposition to innovation of any kind.
The strength of his faith in Allah and the steadfastness on his understanding of the Deen were tested when under Khalifah al-Mamum and the Khalifah al-Mu’tasim, a Fitnah or a kind of ‘inquisition court’ was created to deal with people among whom were many acknowledged scholars who would not profess the doctrine of “the creation of the Qur’an”. Imam ibn Hanbal too, suffered as a result when he was arrested and brought in chains before the court. But he patiently submitted to corporal punishment and imprisonment and resolutely refused to deviate from his beliefs.
His trial, and the Ummah’s for that matter, were to come to an end on the hands of the Khalifah al-Mutawakkil who did not believe in the doctrine of ‘the creation of the Qur’an’. From then onwards the Imam was accorded honour befitting his greatness. His steadfastness helped preserve the correct Islamic belief regarding the Book of Allah. His fame spread far and wide. His learning, piety and unswerving faithfulness to traditions gathered the Ummah and its scholars around his understanding and teachings. He died in Baghdad in the year 855 CE (241 AH).
Among the works of Imam ibn Hanbal is the great encyclopedia of ahadeeth called al-Musnad, compiled during his life time, completed by his son Abdullah, and amplified by supplements. Al-Musnad contains more than thirty thousand ahadeeh. His other works include ”Kitab-us-Salah”, on the discipline of making salah and “Kitab-us-Sunnah”, on matters of aqueedah as they are understood from the hadith of the prophet, sallallahu 'alayhi wa sallam and the sayings and commentaries of the companions of the Prophet, sallallahu 'alayhi wa sallam.
Imam ath-Dhahabi related many of the praises stated by the scholars who knew Ibn Hanbal personally. The biography of Ibn Hanbal spread over at least 113 pages of ath-Thahabi’s, “Siyar A’lam an-Nubala”.
Abdullah ibn Ahmad, the Imam’s son, said: “I heard Abu Zur’ata Rrazi say: ‘Your father had memorised a million hadith, which I rehearsed with him according to the topic,’”
Ali ibnul-Madini, the great Imam of Hadeeth said: “Truly, Allah reinforced this religion with Abu Bakr as-Siddiq the day of the great apostasy (ar-Riddah), and He reinforced it with Ahmad ibn Hanbal the day of the Inquisition (al-Mihnah).”
Harmala said: “I heard ash-Shafi’ee say: ‘I left Baghdad and did not leave behind me anyone more virtuous, more learned, more knowledgeable than Ahmad ibn Hanbal.’”

_____________________________________________________

Name : Ali Eissa Ahmad Sabeei .

ID Number : 500167 - ( MA1)

Reading

2005-12-14T12:46:00.000-08:00

Imaam Ahmad ibn Hanbal
Hassan Ahmad
Al-Jumu'ah Magazine Volume 12 - Issue 3 – Rabi’ul Al-Awwal 1421 H

Abu Abdullah, Ahmad ibn Hanbal ash-Shaibani, was born in the city of Baghdad in the year 780 CE (164 AH). He studied various subjects in his hometown and traveled extensively in quest of knowledge.
In his great book, ‘Siyar A’lam an-Nubala’, Imam ath-Dhahabi described Ibn Hanbal as, “The true Shaikh of Islam and leader of the Muslims in his time, the hadith master and proof of the religion”.
He was chiefly interested in acquiring knowledge of Ahadeeth and traveled extensively through Iraq, Syria, Arabia and other places in the Middle East studying religion and collecting the ahadeeth of Prophet Muhammad, sallallahu 'alayhi wa sallam. His travels occupied several years of his early life.
After returning home, he became a student of Imam Shafi’ee who taught him the subject of Islamic Fiqh and its fundamentals. This and the fact that he was a scholar of hadith, were responsible for his deep devotion to the textual views on Islam, and his opposition to innovation of any kind.
The strength of his faith in Allah and the steadfastness on his understanding of the Deen were tested when under Khalifah al-Mamum and the Khalifah al-Mu’tasim, a Fitnah or a kind of ‘inquisition court’ was created to deal with people among whom were many acknowledged scholars who would not profess the doctrine of “the creation of the Qur’an”. Imam ibn Hanbal too, suffered as a result when he was arrested and brought in chains before the court. But he patiently submitted to corporal punishment and imprisonment and resolutely refused to deviate from his beliefs.
His trial, and the Ummah’s for that matter, were to come to an end on the hands of the Khalifah al-Mutawakkil who did not believe in the doctrine of ‘the creation of the Qur’an’. From then onwards the Imam was accorded honour befitting his greatness. His steadfastness helped preserve the correct Islamic belief regarding the Book of Allah. His fame spread far and wide. His learning, piety and unswerving faithfulness to traditions gathered the Ummah and its scholars around his understanding and teachings. He died in Baghdad in the year 855 CE (241 AH).
Among the works of Imam ibn Hanbal is the great encyclopedia of ahadeeth called al-Musnad, compiled during his life time, completed by his son Abdullah, and amplified by supplements. Al-Musnad contains more than thirty thousand ahadeeh. His other works include ”Kitab-us-Salah”, on the discipline of making salah and “Kitab-us-Sunnah”, on matters of aqueedah as they are understood from the hadith of the prophet, sallallahu 'alayhi wa sallam and the sayings and commentaries of the companions of the Prophet, sallallahu 'alayhi wa sallam.
Imam ath-Dhahabi related many of the praises stated by the scholars who knew Ibn Hanbal personally. The biography of Ibn Hanbal spread over at least 113 pages of ath-Thahabi’s, “Siyar A’lam an-Nubala”.
Abdullah ibn Ahmad, the Imam’s son, said: “I heard Abu Zur’ata Rrazi say: ‘Your father had memorised a million hadith, which I rehearsed with him according to the topic,’”
Ali ibnul-Madini, the great Imam of Hadeeth said: “Truly, Allah reinforced this religion with Abu Bakr as-Siddiq the day of the great apostasy (ar-Riddah), and He reinforced it with Ahmad ibn Hanbal the day of the Inquisition (al-Mihnah).”
Harmala said: “I heard ash-Shafi’ee say: ‘I left Baghdad and did not leave behind me anyone more virtuous, more learned, more knowledgeable than Ahmad ibn Hanbal.’”

Name : Ali Eissa Ahmad Sabeei .

ID Number : 500167 - ( MA1)

2005-12-14T09:26:00.000-08:00

To: Mr. yosuef
From: ahmed yonus mohmed ID no: 500292
subgict: writing
* The recorded history of Egypt goes back for at least a thousand years, as is evident from the ruined monuments, pyramids and temples.
* It was the Romans who overshadowed the Egyptian dynasties, Egypt then lapsed into relative obscurity and it remained this way until the armies of Islam overran the country following the death of the Prophet Mohammed.
* Cairo shortly became one of the greatest centres of Islamic culture.
* Egypt later became part of the Turkish Empire, the Sultans becoming virtual recluses inside the Topkapi Palace in Istanbul.
* The Janissaries led Egypt into autonomous rule, these were mercenary troops of the Turks. The country declined under corruption and cultural decline.
* It was not until the late 19th century when the British took over, that the corruption ended. The British took over due to Egypt's inability to finance her foreign debts.
* In the 19th century there was a period of rivalry between the British and the French for political control and trading concessions in Egypt.
* During the 19th century also, de Lesseps cowww.goscinny.net/actu/Bin/prg2006-6.jpg">
Georges Wolinski, Fred et Zep. Benoït Mouchart (Directeur Artistique du Festival d'Angoulême).

Pierre tchernia et Cédric Klapisch.

Georges Wolinski, Fred et Zep.

2005-12-14T02:51:00.000-08:00

To: Mr. yosuef
From: ahmed yonus mohmed ID no: 500292
subgict: writing
* The recorded history of Egypt goes back for at least a thousand years, as is evident from the ruined monuments, pyramids and temples.
* It was the Romans who overshadowed the Egyptian dynasties, Egypt then lapsed into relative obscurity and it remained this way until the armies of Islam overran the country following the death of the Prophet Mohammed.
* Cairo shortly became one of the greatest centres of Islamic culture.
* Egypt later became part of the Turkish Empire, the Sultans becoming virtual recluses inside the Topkapi Palace in Istanbul.
* The Janissaries led Egypt into autonomous rule, these were mercenary troops of the Turks. The country declined under corruption and cultural decline.
* It was not until the late 19th century when the British took over, that the corruption ended. The British took over due to Egypt's inability to finance her foreign debts.
* In the 19th century there was a period of rivalry between the British and the French for political control and trading concessions in Egypt.
* During the 19th century also, de Lesseps co0A
Every moments a day
Every day seems a lifetime
Let me show you the way
To a joy beyond compare

- Michael Buble ft. Nelly Furtado~ Quando Quando Quando

Reading

2005-12-14T02:12:00.000-08:00

From : saleh Alodeibi
Id no : 500450

CITY OF LOS ANGELES

City of Los Angeles is the largest city in state of California. It has a
population of over 20 million.
Los Angeles is a city as well as a County. In a county there are
quite a few cities It is a diversified city with people from all over the world.
It is only130 miles from Mexico (one of the countries in North America).
Los Angeles has lots of attraction for the people of all ages.
One of the biggest attraction is Universal Studio Where lots of memorable
Motion pictures were made.
About 40 miles from Los Angeles Downtown is the world famous Disneyland. However this Disneyland is not as big as in
State of Florida. Los Angeles county has lot of beaches namely Hermosa beach, Manhattan beach Redondo beach and so on. Also there are number of Freeways that connects to different cities and also to other states which are called Interstate Freeways.
All on all it is a enjoyable place to visit.

2005-12-14T01:50:00.000-08:00

eygpt

2005-12-14T01:17:00.000-08:00

to: mr.yosef
from: ahmed yonus id: 500292

WRITING:
Egypt - History
* The recorded history of Egypt goes back for at least a thousand years, as is evident from the ruined monuments, pyramids and temples.
* It was the Romans who overshadowed the Egyptian dynasties, Egypt then lapsed into relative obscurity and it remained this way until the armies of Islam overran the country following the death of the Prophet Mohammed.
* Cairo shortly became one of the greatest centres of Islamic culture.
* Egypt later became part of the Turkish Empire, the Sultans becoming virtual recluses inside the Topkapi Palace in Istanbul.
* The Janissaries led Egypt into autonomous rule, these were mercenary troops of the Turks. The country declined under corruption and cultural decline.
* It was not until the late 19th century when the British took over, that the corruption ended. The British took over due to Egypt's inability to finance her foreign debts.
* In the 19th century there was a period of rivalry between the British and the French for political control and trading concessions in Egypt.
* During the 19th century also, de Lesseps conceived of and built the Suez canal. This has profited the country greatly, but due to the fact that it was privately owned up to the 1950s by the British and French shareholders, a large percentage of its income by-passed the Egyptian economy.
* In 1952 there was a military coup which overthrew the corrupt monarchy. The coup was led by Colonel Abdel Nasser, a nationalist and a tough negotiator. He was one of the most outstanding politicians in the less developed world. Using rivalry between the Americans and Russians he attracted the aid he needed for the construction of the Aswan dam, and also obtained the military hardware required for wars against Israel.

READING : * During his period of rule there were many attempts at federation or unification with other Arab states, these did not succeed.
* There have also been proposals to merge with Libya and Sudan but nothing has come of this.
* Relations have remained tense between Egypt and Libya, due to the Camp David peace treaty in 1978.
* There have been many wars with Israel causing a devastating effect on the country's economy due to the need for development of military hardware. The wars resulted in the closure of the Suez canal also the occupation of Sinai, rich in oil wells.
* Nasser was succeeded by Sadat who was responsible for putting together a peace treaty with Israel. Egypt has now an open border and trade links with Israel but a closed border and no trade links with Libya.
* Sadate was assassinated during a military parade by members of the Muslim Brotherhood, radical Islamic fundamentalists.
* Mubarak took over from Sadat and clamped down heavily on the Muslim Brotherhood and improved relations with Jordan.
* People rely upon the annual flood from the river Nile to fertilise land to grow crops. The other 95 percent of the country is completely barren. The building of the Aswan dam has stopped the annual flood and the fertility of the land is deteriorating although the dam does allow irrigation, it also generates hydro-electric power and so has proved to be a mixed blessing.
* The fishing industry has also deteriorated but a factor that has been increasing is the disease Bilharzia, both in lake Nasser and in the lower Nile valley.

2005-12-14T01:04:00.028-08:00

To: Mr.yosef
From: Ahmed yonus mhmed ID no: 500292

WRITING:

Egypt - History

* The recorded history of Egypt goes back for at least a thousand years, as is evident from the ruined monuments, pyramids and temples.

* It was the Romans who overshadowed the Egyptian dynasties, Egypt then lapsed into relative obscurity and it remained this way until the armies of Islam overran the country following the death of the Prophet Mohammed.

* Cairo shortly became one of the greatest centres of Islamic culture.

* Egypt later became part of the Turkish Empire, the Sultans becoming virtual recluses inside the Topkapi Palace in Istanbul.

* The Janissaries led Egypt into autonomous rule, these were mercenary troops of the Turks. The country declined under corruption and cultural decline.

* It was not until the late 19th century when the British took over, that the corruption ended. The British took over due to Egypt's inability to finance her foreign debts.

* In the 19th century there was a period of rivalry between the British and the French for political control and trading concessions in Egypt.

* During the 19th century also, de Lesseps conceived of and built the Suez canal. This has profited the country greatly, but due to the fact that it was privately owned up to the 1950s by the British and French shareholders, a large percentage of its income by-passed the Egyptian economy.

* In 1952 there was a military coup which overthrew the corrupt monarchy. The coup was led by Colonel Abdel Nasser, a nationalist and a tough negotiator. He was one of the most outstanding politicians in the less developed world. Using rivalry between the Americans and Russians he attracted the aid he needed for the construction of the Aswan dam, and also obtained the military hardware required for wars against Israel.

* During his period of rule there were many attempts at federation or unification with other Arab states, these did not succeed.

* There have also been proposals to merge with Libya and Sudan but nothing has come of this.

* Relations have remained tense between Egypt and Libya, due to the Camp David peace treaty in 1978.

* There have been many wars with Israel causing a devastating effect on the country's economy due to the need for development of military hardware. The wars resulted in the closure of the Suez canal also the occupation of Sinai, rich in oil wells.

* Nasser was succeeded by Sadat who was responsible for putting together a peace treaty with Israel. Egypt has now an open border and trade links with Israel but a closed border and no trade links with Libya.

* Sadate was assassinated during a military parade by members of the Muslim Brotherhood, radical Islamic fundamentalists.

* Mubarak took over from Sadat and clamped down heavily on the Muslim Brotherhood and improved relations with Jordan.

* People rely upon the annual flood from the river Nile to fertilise land to grow crops. The other 95 percent of the country is completely barren. The building of the Aswan dam has stopped the annual flood and the fertility of the land is deteriorating although the dam does allow irrigation, it also generates hydro-electric power and so has proved to be a mixed blessing.

* The fishing industry has also deteriorated but a factor that has been increasing is the disease Bilharzia, both in lake Nasser and in the lower Nile valley.

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READING :
The recorded history of Egypt goes back for at least a thousand years, as is evident from the ruined monuments, pyramids and temples.

* It was the Romans who overshadowed the Egyptian dynasties, Egypt then lapsed into relative obscurity and it remained this way until the armies of Islam overran the country following the death of the Prophet Mohammed.

* Cairo shortly became one of the greatest centres of Islamic culture.

* Egypt later became part of the Turkish Empire, the Sultans becoming virtual recluses inside the Topkapi Palace in Istanbul.

* The Janissaries led Egypt into autonomous rule, these were mercenary troops of the Turks. The country declined under corruption and cultural decline.

* It was not until the late 19th century when the British took over, that the corruption ended. The British took over due to Egypt's inability to finance her foreign debts.

* In the 19th century there was a period of rivalry between the British and the French for political control and trading concessions in Egypt.

* During the 19th century also, de Lesseps conceived of and built the Suez canal. This has profited the country greatly, but due to the fact that it was privately owned up to the 1950s by the British and French shareholders, a large percentage of its income by-passed the Egyptian economy.

* In 1952 there was a military

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